Revista Arbitrada de la Facultad Experimental de Arte
de la Universidad del Zulia. Maracaibo, Venezuela
AÑO 17 N° 30. JULIO - DICIEMBRE 2022 ~ pp. 30-37
Nadezhda Zubova
Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University
Paris, France
Nadezhda.Zubova@etu.univ-paris1.fr
Recibido: 10-12-21
Aceptado: 23-03-22
Towards a Typology of Surprise in Organ Music
Hacia una tipología de la sorpresa en la música para
órgano
The current article is dedicated to the emotion of surprise
in music. It is a part of a wider research on the musical
surprise and its role in the aesthetical perception. The
main aim of this work is to explore the origins of musical
surprise with the purpose of developing a typology of
this emotion in organ music. Based on the analysis of
harmony, melody, rhythm, and dynamics of some musical
compositions, an attempt is made to distinguish the
features of the musical text that contribute to the arousal
of the emotion of surprise. Furthermore, we inquire into
the emotion of surprise induced in the studied cases and
conclude that there exist three types of musical surprise.
Keywords: music for organ, music perception, music
psychology, surprise, emotion.
El presente artículo está dedicado a la sorpresa como
emoción dentro de la música. Forma parte de una
investigación más amplia sobre la sorpresa musical y su
papel en la percepción estética. El objetivo principal de este
trabajo es explorar los orígenes de la sorpresa musical con
el propósito de desarrollar una tipología de esta emoción
en la música para órgano. Con base en el análisis armónico,
melódico, rítmico y dinámico de algunas composiciones
musicales, se intenta distinguir las características del texto
musical que contribuyen a despertar la emoción de la
sorpresa. Además, se indaga en la emoción de sorpresa
inducida en los casos estudiados, concluyendo que existen
tres tipos de sorpresa musical.
Palabras clave: música para órgano, percepción musical,
psicología de la música, sorpresa, emoción.
Abstract Resumen
31
Towards a Typology of Surprise in Organ Music
Nadezhda Zubova
Introduction
This work is dedicated to the emotion of surprise
in music. As one of the basic emotions, surprise plays an
important role in the perception of music (Huron, 2019).
The main aim of this research is to analyze the origins of
musical surprise with the purpose of developing a typology
of this emotion. The musical material for the study is limited
to the music for organ solo. This choice is due to the fact
that the organological features of the organ allow it to be
considered both as a solo instrument and as an ensemble.
Thus, it is hoped that the results of the research would be
applicable to all types of European instrumental music: for
solo instruments, chamber and orchestral music.
In order to dene types of musical surprise
it should be taken in consideration all aspects of the
musical performance’s perception: from the instrument’s
visual characteristics to the aural features of the musical
composition. The current paper concentrates on the
question of musical surprise originated from the musical
text. Based on the analysis of the harmony, melody, rhythm,
and dynamics of the musical work, it is studied which
elements of musical text could contribute to the arousal of
surprise. Furthermore, the results of this analysis are applied
to formulate a hypothesis on the existing types of musical
surprise. It should be remarked that existence of such
elements doesn’t imply that their perception as surprising
is predened. As it will be seen later, depending on the type
of surprise aroused and mechanisms behind its arousal,
some of the said elements may predispose to the arousal of
surprise with no regard the listener’s individual perception,
yet some of them strongly depend on this latter.
Some nal important considerations: (1)
methodologically, this work has been conducted carrying
out a theoretical analysis focused on a preliminary literature
review, and (2) epistemologically, the cultural and historical
subjectivity and specicity of music-triggered emotions is
to be considered: some elements that cause surprise today
could have been perceived as completely normal during
the period when the piece was composed. However, music
perception research in light of its historical context exceeds
the limits of the current work.
Terminology
Initially, it has to be claried the meaning of
‘surprise’. The Cambridge Dictionary denes it as a “feeling
caused by something unexpected happening” (n.d.). It is
possible to observe that something can be unexpected
in two ways: rst, if nothing is expected; second, if the
expectations weren’t met. This corresponds to the denition
of surprise suggested by the Italian philosopher Umberto
Galimberti (2018) who denes surprise as an “emotion that
arises when an unexpected or contrary to expectation
event occurs” (p. 1208).
1
In order to assure the clarity of further discussion,
some new terms should be introduced. Let it be called
the unexpected absolute if it is due to the absence of any
expectations, and the unexpected relative if it refers to a
contradiction with prior expectations. This terminology
allows to distinguish two types of surprise: absolute surprise
caused by something absolutely unexpected and relative
surprise that is originating from relatively unexpected. Such
classication reects dierent surprise nuances and raises
some fundamental questions: whereas surprise resides in
time, so does there exist a moment of transition between the
two types of surprise? Are there any other types of musical
surprise? This paper seeks to reply to these questions based
on the analysis of the musical text elements. The research
is divided into four parts that correspond to the basic
elements of the musical text: harmony, melody, rhythm,
and dynamics, which – in case of the organ – are intrinsically
connected to the timbre.
To better situate the current article in the eld
of studies on musical emotions, Patrick Juslin’s Musical
Emotions Explained (Juslin, 2019) explains that there are two
known mechanisms linked to surprise: namely, brainstem
reex and musical expectancy. Brainstem reex is a quick,
automatic reaction to a sudden change in some acoustic
feature such as subito fortissimo or an unexpected change
of tempo (Juslin, 2019). This is a “hardwired,” unlearned
mechanism, activated when perceiving something
absolutely unexpected. So, the elements that contribute
to the arousal of absolute surprise are likely based on
the activation of the brainstem reex mechanism. These
elements predispose to the arousal of this type of surprise
regardless the listener’s individual perception.
Contrary to this, the musical expectancy
mechanism may strongly depend on the individual
perception of the listener. As the name of this mechanism
suggests, in this case it is implied arousal of surprise due
to the contradictions with prior expectations. Juslin (2019)
explains: “Musical expectancy refers to a process whereby
an emotion is aroused in a listener because a specic feature
of the music violates, delays, or conrms the listener’s
expectations about the continuation of the music” (p. 344).
Such expectations may arise from some tensions in music
or from some patterns perceived by listener in the musical
piece. If in a musical event the expectations are not met,
the listener may experience the emotion of surprise. Thus,
using the terminology suggested in this paper, we can say
that musical expectancy contributes to the arousal of this
relative surprise. In this case, the individual perception of the
listener plays a signicant role.
1 Original text: “Emozione che insorge quando interviene
un evento inaspettato o contrario all ’’aspettativa”
(Translations by the author).
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Dynamics and timbre
With regard to this category, it is important to
consider the many possibilities of sudden, quick changes in
dynamics and, consequently, in timbre, when playing the
organ: subito forte or subito piano and the echo, very often
used by North German masters, i.e. in Nicolaus Bruhns’
choral fantasy Nun komm der Heiden Heiland (Bruhns and
Brunckhorst, n.d, p. 40, mm. 52–56). Besides, the swift
changes in timbre like in dialogue-imitating pieces that
are often found in French baroque organ music. Louis
Marchand’s Basse de Trompette from his Premier livre d’orgue
(Marchand, 1740) is a good example. Phenomenologically
there is no way to predict such changes, nor it is possible
to precise expectations since, unlike harmony – where
expectations may be raised thanks to the natural laws
regarding the relation between tones –, in the case
of dynamics it is not materially possible to form any
expectations. Therefore, this type of variation in dynamics
or timbre is classied as one of the origins of the absolute
surprise.
Another fundamental feature is the imitation of
sounds that are not typical for organs, like the Vogelgesang
(“bird song”) stop. This stop is based on an elaborate
construction of several pipes immersed in water (Adlung,
1931). This allows the production of a sound that imitates
bird singing. This stop is not used often and, therefore, its
sound may surprise the listener. A further example of non-
characteristic sound for an organ could be the Cymbalstern,
the rotating Christmas star, which produces the sound of
tinkling by means of several bells attached to a star that
rings when is turning (Wedgwood, 1905). Such sounds
are not typical for the organ since they are not associated
with a wind instrument. It seems appropriate to assume
that hearing these stops, the listener would experience a
contradiction with the expectation of hearing another kind
of instrument. Hence, the use of such stops may be one of
the origins of the relative surprise.
Finally, music for the organ, because of the
specicity of the instrument, may also surprise the listener
if the piece involves imitation of an instrumental ensemble.
One of the most famous examples of such imitation is
the trio. Johann Sebastian Bach’s trio sonatas for organ
BWV 525–530 (Bach, 1984) illustrate this case perfectly.
Technically-dicult pieces where the organist plays three
dierent instruments at the same time, using two manual
keyboards and the pedal keyboard. Another example could
be a melody played over a sort of sound background, as
in Tierce en taille from L. Marchand’s Premier livre d’orgue
and in Johannes Brahms’s choral prelude Herzlich tut mich
verlangen op. 122 n° 10. In all three examples, there is a
contradiction between the number of players and the
number of instruments or parts that are actually perceived.
In view of this discrepancy, it is possible to assume that the
imitation of an instrumental ensemble in organ music can
induce the emotion of relative surprise.
Thus, an analysis of dynamics and timbre leads
to argue about three possible origins of surprise: (1) the
changes in dynamics and timbre, which correspond to
absolute surprise; (2) the sounds not typical for organ, and
3) the imitation of an ensemble, producing relative surprise.
Harmony
There are two possible types of unexpected
harmonic development that could originate musical
surprise: (1) avoiding harmonic closure, and (2) original
harmonic sequences.
Harmonic closure may produce contradictions
with expectations by raising unfullled expectations in
the listener. According to some major studies in music
perception (Rosner & Namour, 1992), the most expected
cadential sequence in Western music is the authentic one
– where the V degree is followed by the I degree – and is
always perceived as the most closed. Since V is the closest
harmonic to I (if the octave dierences are not taken into
account), it is natural to remark this link because is based
on the natural laws of physics. So, hearing a cadence,
the listener normally expects that V (or, in case of plagal
cadence, IV) degree will be followed by a I degree chord.
Even more, the listener expects that this would constitute a
perceptible end of the current musical idea.
Thus, harmonic closure may be avoided by giving
preference to the deceptive cadence (for example, C.
Merulo’s Toccata undecimo detto quinto tuono, mm. 3-4) as
well as by continuing the musical idea immediately after the
cadence (for example, in J.S. Bach’s Praeludium and fugue in
e minor, BWV 548, mm. 18-19). In these cases, the listener
may experience contradiction with own expectations,
which would give rise relative surprise.
Using innovative, distinctive harmonic sequences
is the second case of harmony-related behavior. Though
cadences can elicit a sense of relative surprise, innovative
and distinctive harmonic sequences seem capable
of evoking absolute surprise. If the composer creates
harmonic sequences that do not conform to the traditional,
classical aesthetics of Western art music – culturally
aordable – canon, the listener may be confronted with a
musical phenomenon that does not provide material for
formulating precise expectations about what will come
next. The Toccata septima from Johann Ernst Eberlin’s IX
Toccate e fughe per organo (Eberlin, 1747) can illustrate
this origin of absolute surprise since the listener has no
expectations about what he perceives.
Melody
It is possible to distinguish two cases of melodical
elements that could cause surprise: the usage of accidentals
and the melodic jumps. About the accidentals, it is implied
their usage in the melodic realm without considering the
harmonical spectrum, because often they contradict the
33
Towards a Typology of Surprise in Organ Music
Nadezhda Zubova
harmony. Such accidentals actively participate in Italian
Renaissance music, as it is showed in a fragment of Ercole
Pasquini’s Canzona (XVII century) where E at in the third
voice sounds with the C major harmony (Fig. 1).
Figure 1
Pasquini, Canzona, m. 41.
It is dicult to say whether accidentals arouse
absolute or relative surprise as this depends on the
presence of some means that could serve as orienteers
in the musical space. Such a mean could be the harmony
that would suggest tones that are likely to appear. It could
also be the presence of the listener’s sense of the natural
relations between the tones, which depends strongly on the
listener’s experience. If the listener’s experience is sucient
to formulate some particular expectations about the
melody, the accidentals may evoke the emotion of relative
surprise. If, on the other hand, the listener has no means to
formulate expectations, the surprise may be absolute.
On the other hand, melodic jumps can be in
accordance with harmony and the natural relations between
tones and at the same time they can be unexpected. In this
case, the composer does not follow one of the predictable
paths but chooses to take the melody beyond the range of
cultural expectations. Mainly, this results in strong dramatic
eects. Such jumps arouse strong emotions in the listener,
though these emotions are of relative surprise.
A very illustrative example is the King’s theme
found in J. S. Bach’s Musical Oering (BWV 1079) (Fig. 2). This
theme has a very interesting jump: just after going up to the
VI degree, the melody suddenly jumps on the seventh below
and then back up again. The VI degree on the weak beat
sounds unstable, which creates tension and an expectation
of its resolution. However, this expectation is not fullled,
and the jump on the seventh down even intensies the
tension which then resolves itself only relatively. The G
that follows the jump could be seen as a resolution of the
tension that appeared with the A at. At the same time, it
takes place on the weak beat and the melody immediately
proceeds to a chromatic passage. As the result, the G not
quite give the resolution expected. So, in this example, the
jump downwards arouses relative surprise.
Figure 2
J. S. Bach, Ricercare from Musical Oering, BWV 1079 (mm. 1–9).
Thus, the listener may experience a relative
surprise which can also eventually induce an absolute
surprise with the continuation of the melody, only if the
relative surprise induced by the jump is suciently intense
to make the listener doubt about what to expect.
Having faced these two cases where it is not clear
whether the surprise would be absolute or relative, it is
necessary to get back to the question of the existence of a
point of transition between relative and absolute surprise.
Given the ambiguity of the case of accidentals, they are
hypothetically close of this point, which also suggests that
such a point exists. Yet, it is not certain if, in the case of
melodic jump, the transition between relative and absolute
surprise occurs or not. This depends on the individual
perception of the piece.
Looking again at the King’s theme, the transition
point lies rather in the pause following the jump. In the case
of this pause, not only the expectations are not fullled,
but there is not even sound material to formulate new
expectations. So, the pause generates relative surprise
and at the same time a deprivation of any material for
formulating expectations. Additionally, it creates tension,
and an expectation to hear the sound. So, some sound is
expected without being possible to construct any concrete
hypotheses regarding to this sound. It seems that the sound
that follows the pause might evoke the absolute surprise.
Therefore, the pause could be the point of transition.
Rhythm
In rhythmical terms, it must be considered the
sudden change of the movement. This change may happen
in tempo. Merulo’s Toccatas contain many examples of
such changes (Toccata del decimo tono mm. 21-22, Toccata
undecimo detto quinto tuono mm. 13-15). Indeed, he is
the rst composer whose toccatas consist of contrasting
sections written in an improvisational style and choral style.
Such changes are also often found at the end of pieces of
the Renaissance and Baroque eras.
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However, the change in movement may also
happen on the level of the note value. For example, if a
triplet turns to a quadruplet like in the fragment of Naji
Hakim’s O lii et liae from his Esquisses Grégoriennes (see
Fig. 3). As in both cases a sudden change is faced without
any way to predict it, this case can be viewed as a possible
origin of absolute surprise.
Figure 3
N. Hakim, O lii et liae (m. 16).
The second case is the relation between dierent
meters. For example, in the themes of the Italian canzona. A
canzona has at least two parts based on imitative polyphony:
the rst part is in double meter; the second one, in triple
meter. The subjects of both parts are, melodically, almost
the same. Though, they dier in rhythm, which necessarily
requires corrections to the melody even though it remains
recognizable. Thus, in the canzona, already knowing the
theme in its double meter version, with the start of its triple
meter variant, the listener may experience a contradiction
with the own expectations. If the melody is familiar to the
listener in one meter, its transformation in accordance with
the requirements of another meter should be classied as a
cause of relative surprise.
The third rhythm-related case is the use of silence
as a form of music. In this way, the silence, which is often
intuitively perceived as absence of music, is involved as a
full participant of the musical text. In the book Il discorso
musicale: per una semiologia della musica, Jean-Jacques
Nattiez (1998) recognizes two types of silence: silence
outside music and silence in music. For this second type
of silence, he distinguishes three categories: “the silence
considered as a part of the musical piece itself and which the
listener can access by the sounds it contains, the silences of
expectation in classical music and the silences considered
as values in the full sense in modern music” (p. 15)
2
. These
categories can be considered as background silence, silence
2 Original text: “Il silenzio considerato parte stessa dell’opera
musicale e che viene indicato all’ascolto dello spettatore
per i suoni che esso contiene, i silenzi di attesa della
musica classica e i silenzi considerati come valori a pieno
titolo nella musica moderna.”
of expectation, and silence per se accordingly.
The background silence can be understood as the
sound of the white background of the score. Silence per se,
which has received particular attention in contemporary
music, is the silence that participates in the music as such.
A bright example of such silence is John Cage’s 4’33’’. As a
part of a musical piece, silence per se underlines its own
value and its particular role in music. This is all the more
important because intuitively silence is often understood
as the absence of music. Therefore, by using silence per
se, composers draw attention to this misperception and
emphasize the idea of silence as a form of music. Silence
per se can be surprising for the listener since it creates a
contradiction with the expectations of hearing a sound. It
can, therefore, be one of the origins of relative surprise.
Silence per se represents a limited case of the
silence of expectation. However, the role of the silence of
expectation is mainly related to the dramatic eect that it
may give. Such an eect is achieved by arousing intense
emotions in the listener.
As in the musical text, silence of any kind is
represented by pauses, so the silence of expectation can be
linked to the notion of pause of expectation. By means of
such pause, the composer invites silence, often perceived
as the absence of music, to become a full participant in
the musical text. There are many examples in the early-
twentieth-century French organ music, as in the Finale of
Louis Vierne’s sixth symphony for organ (Vierne, 1931) (Fig.
4).
The pause of expectation may cause a
contradiction with the sound expectation: it is one of the
relative surprise origins. Simultaneously, the pause of
expectation, actually being the absence of sound (but
not of music!), does not provide any material to formulate
more or less concrete expectations about what will be
heard subsequently. So, the musical material that follows
the pause may induce an absolute surprise. The pause
of expectation, ultimately, may constitute the point of
transition from relative to absolute surprise.
To analyze this hypothesis, the King’s theme in J. S.
Bach’s Musical Oering is invocated again. It has been already
observed that the jump on the seventh may cause relative
surprise. Then, the following pause of expectation triggers
a relative surprise again, which is even more intense as the
pause falls on the strong beat. Since the pause contains no
sound material to formulate precise expectations, it can
induce uncertainty about next sounds. Therefore, the note
G that follows the pause may prompt an absolute surprise,
conrming the aforementioned hypothesis.
Types of musical surprise
Until now, ten possible origins of surprise have
been determined throughout selected examples of the
music for organ. Partly they correspond to absolute surprise,
partly to relative surprise. There are also ambiguous cases.
35
Towards a Typology of Surprise in Organ Music
Nadezhda Zubova
All these observations are summarized in Figure 5, based
on the classication according to the four aspects of
the musical text. For each possible origin of surprise, it is
indicated whether it elicits relative (Rs) or absolute surprise
(As). The ambiguous cases are marked as Rs/As (this type
of surprise aroused depends on the listener’s perception).
Attempting to group the possible origins of a
musical surprise according to the type of surprise aroused,
there are three groups:
(1) the rst group would include three possible
origins of absolute surprise, which are: original harmonic
sequences, changes in movement, and changes in
dynamics and timbre; (2) the second group would consist of
ve origins of relative surprise: avoiding harmonic closure,
relation between dierent meters, imitation of sounds not
characteristic for the instrument, imitation of an ensemble
of instruments, and pauses of expectation; (3) the third
group would include the two ambiguous cases: accidentals
and melodic jumps.
In these latter cases, it is uncertain whether
the listener would experience the emotion of relative
or absolute surprise. This ambiguity is due to the strong
dependence of individual perception on subjective
experience and on the cultural context related to the sense
of natural relations between tones. Therefore, a new type
of surprise emerges: the ambivalent surprise, which may be
interpreted both as absolute and as relative depending on
the listener’s perception.
Attempting to group the possible origins of a
musical surprise according to the type of surprise aroused,
there are three groups:
(1) the rst group would include three possible
origins of absolute surprise, which are: original harmonic
sequences, changes in movement, and changes in
dynamics and timbre; (2) the second group would consist of
ve origins of relative surprise: avoiding harmonic closure,
relation between dierent meters, imitation of sounds not
characteristic for the instrument, imitation of an ensemble
of instruments, and pauses of expectation; (3) the third
group would include the two ambiguous cases: accidentals
and melodic jumps.
In these latter cases, it is uncertain whether
the listener would experience the emotion of relative
or absolute surprise. This ambiguity is due to the strong
dependence of individual perception on subjective
experience and on the cultural context related to the sense
of natural relations between tones. Therefore, a new type
of surprise emerges: the ambivalent surprise, which may be
interpreted both as absolute and as relative depending on
the listener’s perception.
Figure 4
L. Vierne, Symphonie VI op. 59 n. 6 (mm. 1–6).
Figure 5
Types of musical surprise.
Harmony Melody Rhythm Dynamics & Timbre
Avoiding harmonic closure
(Rs)
Accidentals
(Rs/As)
Changes in mouvement
(As)
Changes in the dynamics
and in timbre (As)
Original harmonic
sequences (As)
Jumps (Rs/As)
Relation between dierent
meters (Rs)
Sounds not characteristic
for the instrument (Rs)
Pauses of expectation (Rs)
Imitation of an ensemble of
instruments (Rs)
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Final Considerations
Concerning the case of surprise aroused by inner
elements of musical text, three types of surprise can be
identied: relative, absolute, and ambivalent surprise. As
soon as this last type of surprise has entered the game, the
question of the point of transition between relative and
absolute surprise becomes even more important.
In search of such a point – a moment when specic
expectations would disappear –, it has been observed that
the transition might happen because of sudden melodical
jumps, even though it depends on subjective perception. A
less perception-dependent case is the pause of expectation,
being during this pause that transition from relative to
absolute surprise takes place. It is necessary that the pause
of expectation should occur in all voices to be perceived
and be eective.
Furthermore, searching for a point of transition in
the opposite sense, from absolute to relative surprise, does
not seem to make sense, given that absolute surprise in the
timeline takes only an instant and has no tendency to last.
Given that absolute surprise constitutes a
moment, and that relative surprise corresponds to an
interval of time, it is possible to illustrate their dependence
on time and the intensity of the emotion experienced
(Fig. 6). Relative surprise is characterized not only by high
intensity and duration but also by a dynamic intensity
3
, and
can be both positive, represented on the diagram in the
upper area, and negative, in the lower area.
Figure 6
Time relation between absolute and relative surprise.
So, while relative surprise could be represented as
a fragment of a wave, absolute surprise could be represented
by a point. Surprise reveals its absolute or relative character
according to the conditions of the aesthetic perception
and therefore according to the mechanism activated that
makes it being experienced: brainstem reex in case of
absolute surprise or musical expectation in case of relative
surprise. Also it has been distinguished a moment when,
with a very high probability, relative surprise would cease
to be and would give rise to an absolute surprise. It could be
3 Otherwise, relative surprise would be experienced during
an innite interval of time, which is not possible.
supposed that in this very transition point between relative
and absolute surprise both mechanisms (brainstem reex
and musical expectation) seem to be employed, reinforcing
the eect of each other. Since the perception of music
depends on a large number of factors, an estimation of the
probability of their dierent combinations seems inevitable
for any research on the subject. This makes the study of
music perception one of the most demanding, but also one
of the most interesting because of the ample spectrum of
possibilities.
The current study is only a part of an ongoing
research on this topic. The analysis presented in this article
may be enriched by a study on the value of musical surprise
and the role of surprise in the development of artistic
thought. Furthermore, the observations made in the study
and its results may be tested in a corresponding empirical
study. In addition to this, a study on the perception of music
by professional musicians could lead to the possibility
of approaching a more complete picture of the musical
surprise context.
Finally, the study did not consider whether the
listener is familiar with the music or not. It seems that each
time a musical piece is perceived, it is re-experienced from
the emotional reactions perspective. This phenomenon
was also observed by Wittgenstein and Barrett (2007)
and it suggests the question of the relation, on one hand,
between musical emotions and ordinary emotions, and on
the other hand, between musical emotions and memory.
These questions undoubtfully deserve particular scientic
attention and constitute subjects for further research.
Acknowledgments
I want to express the most sincere gratitude to
Professor Laurent Jaro for his invaluable advice and help
regarding to this work. I thank also to Professors Anatoly
Milka, Ivan Rosano, Grigory Varshavskiy, and Andrei
Kolomiitsev for their direct and indirect support. Besides,
I am very grateful to Stefano Scarpa for our enriching
discussions on the historiography of organ music and on
musical aesthetics.
References
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Towards a Typology of Surprise in Organ Music
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