Revista
de la
Universidad
del Zulia
Fundada en 1947
por el Dr. Jesús Enrique Lossada
75
ANIVERSARIO
DEPÓSITO LEGAL ZU2020000153
ISSN 0041-8811
E-ISSN 2665-0428
Ciencias
Exactas,
Naturales
y de la Salud
Año 13 N° 37
Mayo - Agosto 2022
Tercera Época
Maracaibo-Venezuela
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
198
Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts
Carlos Rios-Campos *
Pilar del Rosario Rios-Campos **
Freddy Camacho Delgado ***
Maria Raquel Maxe Malca ****
Rocío Emilia Saavedra Sandoval *****
ABSTRACT
It is necessary to know the state of the Arab universities. In this paper the general objective
was to determine the situation of Arab universities: Problems, COVID-19 & efforts.
Methodology, in this research, 36 documents have been selected, carried out in the period
2016 - 2021; including: scientific articles, review articles and information from websites of
recognized organizations. The keywords used in the searches were: Arab universities and
COVID-19. Results. Arab universities have faced many problems during the pandemic, but
they have struggled to overcome them and offer a virtual education to their students.
Conclusions. Covid-19 forced the closure of Arab universities, affecting the education of
students, who have problems accessing to the internet. Arab universities that used
traditional education are gradually migrating to virtual education. King Abdulaziz
University of Saudi Arabia ranks first in the Arab Universities Ranking 2021.
KEYWORDS: Arab universities, COVID-19, higher education, distance education.
*Professor. Researcher Concytec - RENACYT. Doctor in University Management. Master in
Administration. Systems Engineer. Member of the College of Engineers of Peru. Northern Investigation
Activities Section (IAS) - IEEE Peru. Technological University of Peru. Chiclayo, Peru. ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8003-5577. E-mail: c21092@utp.edu.pe
**Principal Professor at the National University Pedro Ruiz Gallo. Master in Sciences with Mention in
Computer Science and Systems. Systems engineer. Lambayeque, Peru. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-
0002-9281-6423. E-mail: prios@unprg.edu.pe
***Main Teacher. Ph.D. in Economics. National Intercultural University Fabiola Salazar Leguía de
Bagua. Bagua Grande, Peru. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3053-5300. E-mail:
fcamacho@unibagua.edu.pe
****Chemical engineer. Master’s degree in Industrial Process Engineering. Doctor in Education. Cesar
Vallejo University. Chiclayo, Peru. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5371-9241. E-mail:
maxer30@hotmail.com
*****Degree in Education. Teacher of Language and Literature. Master in University Teaching. Cesar
Vallejo University. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4321-6322. E-mail: saavedrasre@gmail.com
Recibido: 28/01/2022 Aceptado: 15/03/2022
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
199
Universidades árabes: problemas, COVID-19 y esfuerzos
RESUMEN
Es necesario conocer el estado de las universidades árabes. En este documento, el objetivo
general fue determinar la situación de las universidades árabes: problemas, COVID-19 y
esfuerzos. Metodología, en esta investigación se han seleccionado 36 documentos, realizados
en el periodo 2016 - 2021; incluyendo: artículos científicos, artículos de revisión e información
de sitios web de organizaciones reconocidas. Las palabras clave utilizadas en las búsquedas
fueron: universidades árabes y COVID-19. Resultados. Las universidades árabes se han
enfrentado a muchos problemas durante la pandemia, pero han luchado para superarlo y
ofrecer una educación virtual a sus estudiantes. Conclusiones. La Covid-19 obligó al cierre de
las universidades árabes, afectando la educación de los estudiantes, quienes tienen problemas
para acceder a internet. Las universidades árabes que utilizaban la educación tradicional
están migrando gradualmente a la educación virtual. La Universidad Rey Abdulaziz de
Arabia Saudita ocupa el primer lugar en el Ranking de Universidades Árabes 2021.
PALABRAS CLAVE: universidades árabes, COVID-19, educación superior, educación a
distancia.
Introduction
In 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic spread across the globe, a majority of countries
announced the temporary closure of schools, impacting more than 91 per cent of students
worldwide…The global pandemic has far-reaching consequences that may endanger the
reached achievements made in improving global education (UN, 2020).
Arabic is the principal language of Islamic civilization and the key to understand the
modern Middle East. Various forms are spoken from North Africa to the borders of Iran, and
as a literary language it is used throughout this area and far beyond. Due to its sacred status
it has exerted an immense influence throughout the Islamic world. Arabic has a vast 'classical'
literarture and a varied and vital modern literature (University of Oxford, 2021).
The Arabic language is one of the United Nations’ six official languages, and the U.S.
Government considers it one of the most critical languages for Americans to learn
(DePaul University, 2021).
Learning Arabic, you gain access to a rich cultural tradition, as well as knowledge and
insight into the contemporary Middle East and North Africa (Stockholm University (2021).
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
200
In the Arab world, publically-owned IHLs are the norm although privately-owned
IHLs are increasing rapidly. Private IHLs tend to enjoy greater degrees of administrative
autonomy than public. They are accountable to the institution’s specific boards of directors
(Waterbury, 2018).
The Association of Arab Universities is a non-governmental organization that has an
independent legal character. Its membership includes 280 Arab Universities at the present
time. AARU's was established in 1964 upon a resolution issued by the Arab League. A
temporary General Secretariat was formed in Cairo, Egypt. In 1969, permanent General
Secretariat was designated. Its permanent headquarter has been in Amman since 1984, the
capital of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (The Association of Arab Universities (2021).
To help Arab students make better, more informed decisions when choosing a
university or academic program, Al-Fanar Media has updated and relaunched its
“Internationally Accredited Universities and Programs” resource: The first searchable
database of all the Arab university programs and higher education institutions that are
accredited by independent, international accreditation agencies (Zawk, 2021).
In this paper the general objective was to determine the situation of Arab universities:
Problems, COVID-19 and efforts.
1. Methodology
The research presents a qualitative-interpretative design, of the documentary type,
which specified the selection procedure and the data recording (Barrero y Rosero, 2018).
In this research, 36 documents have been selected, carried out in the period 2016 -
2021; including: scientific articles, review articles and information from websites of
recognized organizations. The keywords used in the searches were: Arab universities and
COVID-19. For the selection of the documents, the following criteria were used: the year of
publication, belong to the research and be a reliable source of information. After reading each
document, the data was entered into the bibliographic matrix, which is used to catalog the
documents according to categories, which are presented in the chart 1.
Chart 1. Bibliographic matrix
Name
Type
Objectives
Conclusions
Source: Adapted from Barrero & Rosero (2018)
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
201
2. Results
2.1. Problems
However, digital access is not always available and the gap is too wide. In MENA, 10
countries have internet insertion of less than 70 per cent. In Sudan and Yemen, access levels
are even lower, with internet insertion of only 30 per cent (Chaiban, 2021).
One-by-one interviews with the participants revealed multiple factors obstructed
Arab international students' academic success and limited their socialization within the
context of their postsecondary institution, their host community, and their host nation.
Several prevailing themes were discovered among the participants, including culture shock,
language barrier, cultural differences, and isolation (Abu, 2017).
The results of empirical research suggest that young people in the UAE rank
entrepreneurship as their first employment choice. Neverthless, most of them have not
attended any formal entrepreneurship-related course in school or in college (Jabeen, Faisal
& Katsioloudes, 2017).
As a result, the universities are full of students from the richest strata of society. In
other words, free higher education confers a huge rent to those who have access to it. And
the rich are better placed to take advantage those rents than the poor (Devarajan, 2016).
Our findings suggest that universities should focus on the two most critical issues
over which they have some control: ensuring safety for the faculty and creating an effective
research infrastructure (Almansour & Kempner, 2017).
It seems that a reasonable balance between culture and
online learning is a major concern while implementing blended learning. Decision-makers
should initially consider the compatibility between the conservative Saudi culture and
providing appropriate online materials (Sheerah & Goodwyn, 2016).
2.2. COVID-19
Coronaviruses are a type of virus. There are many different kinds, and some cause
diseases. A coronavirus identified in 2019, SARS-CoV-2, called COVID-19 has caused a
pandemic of respiratory illness. COVID-19 is the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, the
coronavirus that emerged in December 2019 (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2021).
The Arab region, where 13 million children and young people are already out-of-school
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
202
due to conflict, has been additionally challenged with more than 100 million affected learners
across the region, according to the Global monitoring of
school closures caused by COVID-19 (UNESCO, 2020).
The riots in Lebanon, the uprising in Iraq, the restrictions imposed on Syria, and the
economic difficulties in Palestine are all examples of determinants affecting pandemic
management. Jordan, on the contrary, is a good example of a stable state, able to implement
appropriate measures (Bizri, Alam, Mobayed, Tamim, Makki & Mushrrafieh, 2021).
As the novel coronavirus sweeps through the Arab region, Al-Fanar Media is
monitoring how it is affecting those facets of the Arab world that we focus on: higher
education, research, and arts and culture. The Covid-19 pandemic has blocked students’
education, shuttered the art world, and revealed how badly the Arab region needs its own
public health and research infrastructure (Al-Fanar Media, 2021).
Chart 2. Total Cases per Million Population as of January 25, 2021.
Source: World Bank (2021)
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
203
This study reports the psychological impact of COVID-19 among adults and children
in the UAE and highlights the significant association between parental and child anxiety.
Findings suggest the urgency for policy makers to develop effective screening and coping
strategies for parents and especially children (Saddik, Hussein, Albanna et al., 2021).
Saudi Arabia was considered as a case study for the effectiveness of distance learning
during the 2020 spring semester, where 300 undergraduate students were surveyed on their
opinions of distance learning. The responses to the survey indicated that distance learning
was effective in providing the required knowledge to the students during the outbreak of
COVID-19 (Alsmadi et.al, 2021).
The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on pharmaceutical education in
Saudi Arabia. While all teaching processes were forced to be distant, the ministry of
education has led educational institutions across the country to a successful completion of
the semester (Alqurshi, 2020).
Moreover, during changing the mode of education into distance learning due to
(COVID-19) pandemic, it did not help the emergence of Arabic chatbots in
Saudi universities (Almurayh, 2021).
2.3. Efforts
University students represent a powerful human asset for development in the Arab
region (Sweileh, 2021).
This study is one of the few studies that compare the synchronous and asynchronous
aspects of BB in the Arabian contexts. It is expected that this study will help university
authorities to set out more practical educational plans in the case of emergencies. Also, this
study will inform the practices of university instructors and designers of professional
development courses in the near future.
The results reveal that business students perceive the four entrepreneurial skills as
key elements for starting their own business (Badawi, Reyad, Khamis, Hamdan & Alsartawi,
2019).
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
204
Chart 3. Top universities in the Arab World 2021
Source: Times Higher Education (2021)
As the UAE is a dynamic, young country that is rapidly changing with a diverse
residency population, it is necessary to frequently research how Emirate students currently
perceive effective classroom practices in order to better support their needs (Singh, Bailey,
Eppard & McKeown, 2021).
An online survey was conducted among researchers from three Arab universities in
Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. In total, 337 participants filled out the questionnaire. The
study shows that 97% of researchers were responsible for their research data, and 64.4% of
researchers shared their data (Elsayed & Saleh, 2018).
E-learning is increasingly being embraced by the traditional academic institutions,
hybrid educational organizations and newly established online organizations for teaching
English and other subjects in universities in the Arab world (Zakarneh, 2018).
Distance education is one of several initiatives of social distancing, which Arabs have
embraced despite their well-rooted social closeness, linking themselves to disengage with
each other, forming unorthodox ‘distanceship’ (Abdulrahman Essa Al Lily, Abdelrahim Fathy
Ismail, Fathi Mohammed Abunasser, Rafdan Hassan Alhajhoj Alqahtani, 2020).
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
205
Finally, this analysis explores the growth potential of e-learning and the efforts made to
support Saudi Arabia’s growing university student population. The article includes an
exploration of the methods of evaluating, securing and modifying the current systems
(Aljaber, 2018).
These conclusions involve specific challenges on the university level, related to the
role of entrepreneurial education and at country level, in relation to the effectiveness of
governmental programs to enhance entrepreneurial endeavours. Further research can
explore and test these findings in a representative sample for the UAE, and for other
countries (Pauceanu, Alpenidze, Edu & Zaharia, 2018).
Arab universities have faced many problems during the pandemic, but they have
struggled to overcome it and offer a virtual education to their students.
3. Discussion
The results of this research coincide with the results of other important authors such
as, Rahmawati & Febriani (2021) “the results ascertain that Arabic learning activities
showed less effectiveness in COVID-19 situation”; Alshaikh, Maasher, Bayazed, Saleem,
Badri, Fakieh (2021) “Saudi Arabia became a forerunner during COVID-19 by taking initial
precautions of curfews and total restrictions…The Ministry of Education strived to cope with
the consequences of these changes swiftly by shifting to online education” and Alvi, Bilal &
Alvi (2021) “the suggested solutions are hoped to help providing successful standards for
virtual ESP teaching and learning as per the constraints of quality modern education”.
Conclusions
Covid-19 forced the closure of Arab universities, affecting the education of students,
who have problems accessing the Internet. Arab universities that used traditional education
are gradually migrating to virtual education. King Abdulaziz University of Saudi Arabia
ranks first in the Arab Universities Ranking 2021.
Arab universities are making many efforts to overcome the difficulties presented
during the pandemic, with virtual learning being an important alternative. In addition, they
are improving their position in the international rankings. Young Arab students have their
own educational requirements, which must be promptly analyzed and addressed.
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
206
References
Abu, H. (2017). Undergraduate Arab International Students' Adjustment to U.S.
Universities. International Journal of Higher Education, v6 n1 p131-139.
doi:10.5430/ijhe.v6n1p131
Abdulrahman Essa Al Lily, Abdelrahim Fathy Ismail, Fathi Mohammed Abunasser, Rafdan
Hassan Alhajhoj Alqahtani (2020). Distance education as a response to pandemics:
Coronavirus and Arab culture, Technology in Society. Volume 63.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101317.
Al-Fanar Media (2021). Coronavirus. Retrieved from https://www.al-
fanarmedia.org/tag/coronavirus-arab-world/
Al-Hunaiyyan, A., Al-Hajri, R., Alzayed, A. &
Alraqqas, B. (2016). Towards an Effective Distance Learning Model:
Implementation Framework for Arab Universities. International Journal of Computer
Application. Volume 6– No.5. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rana-
Alhajri/publication/346473639_Towards_an_Effective_Distance_Learning_Model_Implemen
tation_Framework_for_Arab_Universities/links/5fc4084ca6fdcc6cc683bb55/Towards-an-
Effective-Distance-Learning-Model-Implementation-Framework-for-Arab-Universities.pdf
Aljaber, A. (2018). E-learning policy in Saudi Arabia: Challenges and successes. Research in
Comparative and International Education, 13(1), 176–194.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1745499918764147
Almansour, S. & Kempner, K. (2017). The challenges of delivering public good in Arab
universities: faculty perspectives. Educ Res Policy Prac 16, 219–234.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-017-9213-3
Almurayh, A. (2021). The Challenges of Using Arabic Chatbot in Saudi
Universities. IAENG International Journal of Computer Science, 48:1. Retrieved from
http://www.iaeng.org/IJCS/issues_v48/issue_1/IJCS_48_1_21.pdf
Alqurshi, A. (2020). Investigating the impact of COVID-19 lockdown on pharmaceutical
education in Saudi Arabia – A call for a remote teaching contingency strategy. Saudi
Pharmaceutical Journal, Volume 28, Issue 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2020.07.008.
Alshaikh, K.; Maasher, S.; Bayazed, A.; Saleem, F.; Badri, S.; Fakieh, B. (2021). Impact of
COVID-19 on the Educational Process in Saudi Arabia: A Technology–Organization–
Environment Framework. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7103. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137103
Alsmadi, M. K., Al-Marashdeh, I., Alzaqebah, M., Jaradat, G., Alghamdi, F. A., Mustafa A
Mohammad, R., Alshabanah, M., Alrajhi, D., Alkhaldi, H., Aldhafferi, N., Alqahtani, A.,
Badawi, U. A., & Tayfour, M. (2021). Digitalization of learning in Saudi Arabia during the
COVID-19 outbreak: A survey. Informatics in medicine unlocked, 25, 100632.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imu.2021.100632
Alvi, A. H., Bilal, S.M., & Alvi, A.A. (2021). Technology, Pedagogy & Assessment: Challenges
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
207
of COVID19-Imposed E-Teaching of ESP to Saudi Female PY Students. Arab World English
Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on Covid 19 Challenges (1) 334- 353. DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/covid.25
Badawi, S., Reyad, S., Khamis, R., Hamdan, A. & Alsartawi, A. (2019). Business education and
entrepreneurial skills: Evidence from Arab universities, Journal of Education for Business,
94:5, 314-323, DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2018.1534799
Barrero, A. & Rosero, A. (2018). Estado del Arte sobre Concepciones de la Diversidad en el
Contexto Escolar Infantil. Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Inclusiva, 2018, 12(1), 39-
55 https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-73782018000100004
Bizri, N. A., Alam, W., Mobayed, T., Tamim, H., Makki, M. & Mushrrafieh, U. (2021).
COVID-19 in conflict region: the arab levant response. BMC Public HealthVolume 21, Issue
1. DOI: 10.1186/s12889-021-11580-4
Chaiban, T. (2021). COVID-19, an opportunity to bridge the digital gap and reform education
systems in the region, Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/mena/stories/covid-19-
opportunity-bridge-digital-gap-and-reform-education-systems-region
DePaul University (2021). Academics. Retrieved from
https://www.depaul.edu/academics/undergraduate/majors/Pages/arabic-studies.aspx
Devarajan, S. (2016). The paradox of higher education in MENA. Retrieved from
https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2016/06/27/the-paradox-of-higher-
education-in-mena/
Elsayed, A. M., & Saleh, E. I. (2018). Research data management and sharing among
researchers in Arab universities: An exploratory study. IFLA Journal, 44(4), 281–299.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0340035218785196
Jabeen, F., Faisal, M.N. & Katsioloudes, M. (2017). Entrepreneurial mindset and the role of
universities as strategic drivers of entrepreneurship: Evidence from the United Arab
Emirates. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 136-157.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-07-2016-0117
Johns Hopkins Medicine (2021). What Is Coronavirus? Retrieved from
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus
Pauceanu, A., Alpenidze, O., Edu, T., & Zaharia, R. (2018). What Determinants Influence
Students to Start Their Own Business? Empirical Evidence from United Arab Emirates
Universities. Sustainability, 11(1), 92. doi:10.3390/su11010092
Rahmawati & Febriani, S. (2021). Investigating the Problems of Learning Arabic for Islamic
Universities in the
Era of Covid-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Language Education
Volume 5, Number 4, pp. 324-336.
Doi: https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v5i4.19732
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
208
Saddik, B., Hussein, A., Albanna, A. et al. (2021). The psychological impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on adults and children in the United Arab Emirates: a nationwide cross-sectional
study. BMC Psychiatry 21, 224. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03213-2
Sheerah, H. & Goodwyn, A. (2016). Blended Learning in Saudi Universities: Challenges and
Aspirations.
International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies
Volume 3, Issue 10, October 2016, PP 6-13. Retrieved from http://ijrhss.org/papers/v3-
i10/2.pdf
Singh, H., Bailey, F., Eppard, J. & McKeown, K. (2021). Partners in learning: ‘An exploration
of multi-cultural faculty and Emirati students' perspectives of university learning
experiences’. Learning, Culture and Social InteractionVolume 31. DOI:
10.1016/j.lcsi.2021.100564
Stockholm University (2021). Arabic. Retrieved from
https://www.su.se/english/education/all-subjects/arabic-
1.426257?expEduItemPacks=&expEduItems=&open-collapse-boxes=
Sweileh, W.M. (2021). Contribution of researchers in the Arab region to peer-reviewed
literature on mental health and well-being of university students. Int J Ment Health Syst 15,
50. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-021-00477-9
The Association of Arab Universities (2021). About AArU. Retrieved from
http://www.aaru.edu.jo/en/english/NewHome.aspx
Times Higher Education (2021). Best universities in the Arab World. Retrieved from
https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/best-universities/best-universities-arab-
world
University of Oxford (2021). Admissions. Retrieved from
https://www.ox.ac.uk/admissions/undergraduate/courses/oriental-studies/arabic
UN (2020). Education – United Nations Sustainable Development. Retrieved from
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/education/
UNESCO (2020). Alternative Solutions to School Closure in Arab Countries. To Ensuring
THAT LEARNING NEVER STOPS. COVID-19 EDUCATION RESPONSE. Retrieved from
https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/alternative_solutions_to_school_closure_in_arab_co
untries_-_final.pdf
Waterbury, J. (2018). Governance of Arab Universities: Why Does It Matter?. In: Badran A.,
Baydoun E., Hillman J. (eds) Universities in Arab Countries: An Urgent Need for Change.
Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73111-7_2
World Bank (2021). Middle East and North Africa: Tertiary Education. Retrieved from
https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/401131613571399876-
0090022021/original/MENATEandCovidupdated.pdf
REVISTA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DEL ZULIA. 3ª época. Año 13 N° 37, 2022
Carlos Rios-Campos et al./// Arab Universities: Problems, COVID-19 and Efforts, 198-209
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46925//rdluz.37.13
209
Zakarneh, B. (2018). Effectiveness of E-learning Mode for Teaching English Language in Arab
Universities. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature.
http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.7n.7p.171
Zawk (2021). Al-Fanar Media Updates The Arab World’s First Database of Internationally
Accredited Universities. Retrieved from https://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2021/08/a-
database-for-finding-internationally-accredited-universities-in-the-arab-world/
