Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
Publicación cientíca en formato digital
ISSN-Versión Impresa 0798-1406 / ISSN-Versión on line 2542-3185
Depósito legal pp 197402ZU34
ppi 201502ZU4645
Vol.40 N° 75
2022
Recibido el 09/11/22 Aceptado el 12/12/22
ISSN 0798- 1406 ~ De pó si to le gal pp 198502ZU132
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Vol. 40, Nº 75 (2022), 457-482
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
The role of digital technologies for
the canine units involved in the law
enforcement in European countries
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.4075.28
Pavel Polián *
Petr Polián **
Igor Kopotun ***
Abstract
The aim of the article was to consider the role of digital
technologies in law enforcement by canine units in European
countries. Comparison and observation methods were the main
methodological tools. The research showed that European
K9 units assist in rescue operations, detection of prohibited
substances, rearms and ammunition. Their activity is necessary
during the tracking and arrest of criminal suspects. European
canine units are responsible for protecting service dogs from undue risk.
It was found that tactile interfaces, UAV-based surveillance sensors, video
surveillance systems and GPS are becoming components of European
requirements for canine service activities. Projects implemented as part
of the European research and innovation program Horizon 2020 aim to
develop technologies for rapid response services. It is concluded that, the
INGenIOuS Project resulted in the development of an eective K9 vest for a
search dog, which is based on a complex of modern digital technologies. In
addition, the installation of devices in patrol cars can help to save a working
dog.
Keywords: situational awareness; companion dog; behavioural
interaction; dog equipment; sensory interfaces.
* Rector, Akademie HUSPOL s.r.o., 68604, Kunovice, Czech Republic. ORCID ID: https://orcid.
org/0000-0002-3258-0340
** Academic worker, Akademie HUSPOL s.r.o., 68604, Kunovice, Czech Republic. ORCID ID: https://
orcid.org/0000-0002-4009-0819
*** Vice-rektor, Akademie HUSPOL s.r.o., 68604, Kunovice, Czech Republic. ORCID ID: https://orcid.
org/0000-0002-2947-8599
458
Pavel Polián, Petr Polián y Igor Kopotun
The role of digital technologies for the canine units involved in the law enforcement in European countries
El papel de las tecnologías digitales para las unidades
caninas implicadas en la aplicación de la ley en los países
europeos
Resumen
El objetivo del artículo fue considerar el papel de las tecnologías
digitales en la aplicación de la ley por parte de las unidades caninas en
los países europeos. Los métodos de comparación y observación fueron
las principales herramientas metodológicas. La investigación mostró que
las unidades europeas K9 ayudan en operaciones de rescate, detección
de sustancias prohibidas, armas de fuego y municiones. Su actividad es
necesaria durante el seguimiento y arresto de sospechosos de delitos. Las
unidades caninas europeas son responsables de proteger a los perros de
servicio de riesgos indebidos. Se descubrió que las interfaces táctiles, los
sensores de vigilancia basados en UAV, los sistemas de videovigilancia y
el GPS se están convirtiendo en componentes de los requisitos europeos
para las actividades de los servicios caninos. Los proyectos implementados
como parte del programa europeo de investigación e innovación Horizonte
2020 tienen como objetivo el desarrollo de tecnologías para servicios de
respuesta rápida. Se concluye que, el Proyecto INGenIOuS dio como
resultado el desarrollo de un chaleco K9 ecaz para un perro de búsqueda,
que se basa en un complejo de tecnologías digitales modernas. Además, la
instalación de dispositivos en los patrulleros puede ayudar a salvar a un
perro de trabajo.
Palabras clave: conciencia situacional; perro de compañía; interacción
conductual; equipo para perros; interfaces sensoriales.
Introduction
Canine units are involved in search and rescue operations, assist during
the collection of evidence, or during the apprehension of a criminal to
contribute to a successful outcome in an optimal way. The goal of canine
units in law enforcement is to achieve a proper arrangement of social
relations in the eld of use of dogs by authorized entities (Seliukov, 2020).
This should be achieved both in ocial and everyday activities. This results
in the provision of two directions: maintenance of proper conditions for the
dog’s life and eective use of all its abilities for the benet of society and
the state.
Dogs are intelligent animals that have an intrinsic value going beyond
their contribution during service. This is reected in changes to legislation
and policy around the world (Chaney et al., 2021). In case of working
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Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 457-482
dogs, the animal’s condition largely reects the interaction between three
key components. These include individual dogs, human attitudes and
behaviours, and the physical environment, including management practices
(Cobb et al., 2021).
The ve areas of working dog welfare include nutrition, environment,
physical health, behavioural interactions and their impact on the animal’s
mental state. They are a necessary current model for determining the
general condition of animals (Mellor et al., 2020).
Working dogs represent a small share of the population, but they can
have a profound eect on human health and well-being (Van der Linden,
2021). These animals have become more in demand in the public service
thanks to their special qualities. The use of dogs is especially necessary in
the specic detection (search and rescue dogs, explosive detection dogs)
and protection (military and police dogs).
However, even a well-trained dog with the most developed skills is
unable to complete the tasks without outside help. Providing canine units
with well-trained dogs will not lead to the desired result in the absence of
qualied and professional canines (Shvets, 2020). Success in these roles
requires dogs to meet complex behavioural criteria and undergo careful
training, while the end result is not guaranteed (Bray et al., 2021).
Many law enforcement agencies and the military use dogs for a dual
purpose: protection and detection. The military trains single-purpose
working dogs in reconnaissance, building searches, and the use of controlled
aggression. Search and rescue dogs are trained to nd alive people or
human remains, and may be trained to respond at times of urban disasters
or wilderness environments.
The use of special detector dogs is necessary to detect drug and
contraband odours. Dogs also began to play an important role in the
investigation of arsons, the search for computer and electronic materials
(Petersen and Schoon, 2021). The search for currency, tobacco and help in
the ght against poaching occupy a special place (Ricci et al., 2021).
Digital technologies have grown exponentially, and their use has become
global. The digitization has covered most of humanity. The technological
revolution has combined with a change in the strategy of government
organizations, which seek to be at the forefront of the use of digital
technologies. The increase in the number of new sophisticated threats
increases the need for the use of highly eective means during the work of
canine units, for example, during the detection of explosives (Lazarowski
et al., 2020).
A high-tech solution becomes necessary to facilitate each step of this
process (Vosinakis et al., 2022) New innovative technologies may include
460
Pavel Polián, Petr Polián y Igor Kopotun
The role of digital technologies for the canine units involved in the law enforcement in European countries
devices, automated vehicles, drones or server services. They become
necessary to support canine services in the fullment of their tasks, ensuring
the safety and eciency of operations (Douklias et al., 2021).
In view of the foregoing, the aim of the article is to consider the role
of digital technologies in law enforcement by canine units in European
countries. The aim involved the following research objectives:
1. summarize the main characteristics of the law enforcement agencies
of European countries as the main subjects of canine support and
to determine the forms and methods of organizing the work and
training of special working dogs in the European countries;
2. identify the state of application of digital technologies in canine units
of European countries for the purpose of possible implementation
of relevant innovations for the maintenance of canine units of law
enforcement agencies in Ukraine.
1. Literature review
The choice of the research topic is correlated with the modern vectors
of the theoretical research in dierent states. The study conducted by
Vosinakis et al. (2022) became the main tool and background for the article.
The study focused on the analysis of search and rescue operations in terms
of the use of digital technologies.
The work emphasized that the use of modern digital technologies for the
companion dog of the K9 unit increases the unit’s safety when working in the
eld, helps the K9 operator to better control the location and environment
of K9. This results in an increased information volume provided to the
command-and-control centre during the operation.
The work of Seliukov (2020) had an inuence on the author’s position
regarding the subject under research. The author conducted a comprehensive
analysis of the current legal framework of Ukraine, which determines the
activities of canine agencies and services of dierent departments. Attention
was paid to the problematic issues that arise during the everyday activities
of canine units, the main gaps in the current legislation were identied, and
attention was also focused on the resultant negative consequences.
The ndings of Cobb et al. (2021) on the attitude of society towards the
use of animals were taken into account in this research. The survey of studies
on working dogs in relation to modern ethics, human interaction and ve
areas of animal welfare: nutrition, environment, behavioural interaction,
physical health and mental state occupied a special place in the work.
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In turn, Bray et al. (2021) explored best practices for evaluation, selection
and improvement of working dogs, and concluded on necessary steps and
recommendations for working dog organizations, breeders, trainers and
researchers. Special attention should be paid to the ndings of Foster et
al. (2022) regarding research on the body-worn and airborne sensors to
monitor working dogs and their environment during scent detection, as
well as search and rescue operations. The paper by Douklias et al. (2021)
regarding technologies that may include devices, automated vehicles and
drones or server services required in rescue operations was of particular
importance.
The studies of Ricci et al. (2021) and Lazarowski et al. (2020) used in
the paper emphasize the role of recent advances in forensic odorology,
a method that uses dogs to detect evidence at crime scenes, and the
improvement and standardization of assessment technology to identify and
improve behavioural characteristics of dogs.
The study of Shvets (2020), who emphasized the growing need of the law
enforcement system for highly qualied canine handlers and service dogs,
were used when shaping the author’s position. The author made a detailed
analysis of the problems of the modern stage of the development of service
cynology and proposed ways of updating the administrative legislation in
the eld of canine support of law enforcement.
Bozkurt et al. (2014) analysed related technologies that can measure
aspects of a dog’s behaviour to assess temperament, predict training
success, and even monitor health. The author outlines relevant vectors such
as objectivity, subjectivity, implementation in practice and demonstrates
the innovative technologies that have been developed for dogs, as well as
new interactions that these technologies enable.
The active study of the issues selected in the article conrms that digital
technologies in law enforcement by canine units deserve special attention
and demonstrates the diversity of research in this eld. Therefore, it is
urgent to conduct the study according to new research criteria.
2. Methods
A set of practical and general methods of scientic knowledge was tested
in the research, which was reected in the consistently presented material
of the article. Figure 1 illustrates the course of the research expressed in the
step-by-step use of methodological tools for shaping the author’s positions
and drawing conclusions.
Observation was the main method of the research, which enabled
identifying and conrming the latest innovative technologies tested by
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Pavel Polián, Petr Polián y Igor Kopotun
The role of digital technologies for the canine units involved in the law enforcement in European countries
canine units in Europe. This method was used to reveal the main problems
that the government bodies of Ukraine encounter in the use of specialized
dogs in professional activities; the peculiarities of new technological
solutions in the studied eld in Europe; practical aspects of training dogs to
perform special tasks in the relevant units.
The observation method also made it possible to choose a vector of
promising reforms in Ukraine in order to ensure a balance of approbation
of positive European practices and taking into account national realities.
The observation method was included in the experiment as its integral part,
and its results were interpreted in the article with a view to the need for
further research.
The main hypothesis of the study was the provision that certain
methods of training dogs tested in Europe in the course of digitalization
can be partially actualized in terms of the European integration of Ukraine,
especially in the wartime.
Specic sociological and statistical methods of collecting and
summarizing information were used to study materials for research on
the eectiveness of canine units. These methods were the basis for the
systematization of the practice of involving dogs by specialized divisions of
government bodies.
The inductive method helped to generalize and present the main factors
that make full adaptation of European innovative practices impossible
in Ukraine. The synthesis method contributed to the formulation
of new provisions, theoretical conclusions, proposals and practical
recommendations in the eld of eective interaction between a dog handler
and a dog.
The method of comparative law was used to study the positive experience
of European states, where specialized canine units are actively functioning
as part of government bodies, in order to substantiate the appropriateness
and further eectiveness of adapting positive foreign experience in Ukraine.
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 457-482
Figure 1: Research Design. Source: authors.
The method of interpretation of international and national legal acts in
the eld of regulation of methodologies and technologies of canine units
was also used in the course of the research. The method of legal modelling
was applied in the search for necessary and urgent legislative innovations
in order to ensure the greatest compliance of national legal regulation with
canine innovations, as well as with the latest trends in the European space
and transformations of law enforcement agencies.
The reliability of the obtained results, the soundness of the conclusions
and recommendations in law enforcement practice were conrmed by
the study of a sucient number of primary documents that constitute the
information background for the identication of statistical regularities, the
scientic understanding of the issue under research and modelling of the
most optimal ways to solve it. The 47 surveyed references served as a stable
background for building the author’s conclusions and proposals in the area
under research.
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Pavel Polián, Petr Polián y Igor Kopotun
The role of digital technologies for the canine units involved in the law enforcement in European countries
3. Results
Law enforcement is the main function of the canine service. Canine
services are responsible for law enforcement, maintaining public order
and ensuring public safety in their eld. The functions of the relevant
units include the performance of canine duties aimed at the preparation,
training, maintenance and use of dogs during professional activities. The
organizational function is also important, which implies the creation of
proper conditions for the system of canine units or institutions. In European
countries, canine units are interested in the well-trained service dogs and
pay much attention to animal welfare.
The relevant activity is based on a ve-factor model that includes
nutrition, environment, health, behaviour and mental health. The mental
health of the animal is studied in more detail through the application of this
model. The result is the recognition that for every disturbed physical aspect
there may be an accompanying emotion or subjective experience that may
also aect well-being.
Dogs used for sning and scent detection are usually sporting breeds
such as Labrador Retriever and Golden Retriever. Poodles and Jack Russell
terriers are included in the list for their excellent sense of smell. German
Shepherds, Dutch Shepherds, and Belgian Malinois top the list of tactical
military dogs.
Malinois are especially ideal for tactics involving parachuting and
abseiling. Breeding decisions can be based on generational information,
giving organizations more control over the health and characteristics of
their dogs. Dogs must not have physical problems such as hip dysplasia.
Lameness is a common condition for early retirement in working dogs,
sometimes reported in as many as 69% of cases.
The average cost of training a military dog, for example, ranges from
$20,000 to $40,000. Training a dog to work as an explosive’s detection
expert can cost more than $150,000. Dog training classes take place in
several stages (Figure 2).
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Figure 2: The Main Stages of Training Working Dogs (Grouped by the Author).
The obedience and familiarization stage involves a special emphasis on
kindness and rmness, as well as immediate checking of the dog when it acts
contrary to the command. In modern canine service dog training centres,
no piece of equipment used in operations is ever used as an instrument of
punishment (Council of Europe, 1987).
Tracking is used when pursuing and apprehending a suspect eeing a
crime scene. The trainer shall typically introduce the dog to a game of tug-
of-war with a towel that does not have a scent to begin tracking/detection
training. Later, the drug or weapon that the dog must detect is wrapped
in the same towel so that it acquires the scent of the item. Trainers hide
a towel with the smell of a drug or weapon wrapped in it so that the dog
can search for it in dierent places and environments. Soon the dogs learn
that when they smell these scents accurately, they start to play and this
motivates them.
It is worth noting that a dog’s nose has about 300 million olfactory
receptors, compared to about 6 million in a human nose. So, the olfactory
cortex occupies 12.5% of the total mass of the dog’s brain, while it is barely
1% in the human brain. Search dogs are trained to distinguish more than
19,000 dierent scents for their work.
There are two ways to train working dogs to warn about the specialty
scent. The rst method is called “passive alert”, which is common among
explosive detection dogs. This mostly requires a non-aggressive reaction to
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Pavel Polián, Petr Polián y Igor Kopotun
The role of digital technologies for the canine units involved in the law enforcement in European countries
prevent detonation. This method implies that the dog sits next to a person
when it smells the relevant scent. The method of “aggressive alert” is most
common among dual-purpose police dogs, as the dog is trained to show
signs by vigorously scratching and barking at an item having a scent of a
particular substance.
Having learnt to track, the dog learns to act when meeting a suspect
at the attack stage. If a man stops at the sight of a dog, the dog learns to
keep him at a distance and bark until the handler arrives. But if a person
runs, the dog will attack. The two most important things a dog learns when
learning to attack are where to grab and when to let go. The dog is taught to
grab the right hand or the hand holding the weapon and clamp it between
the jaws until the handler arrives.
The dogs are then trained to attack under re. At the fourth stage of the
training cycle, the dog learns to search buildings, forests, factories and other
objects that it may encounter during the work. Typical training scenarios
might include detecting explosives in a convoy of 10 or more vehicles using
decoys to create distracting stimuli. A special place is given to training in
searching for victims under rubble.
There are many areas of specialization for working dogs (see Figure
3). In particular, detection dogs are used in crime prevention, rescue
operations and investigation to identify and track the subject. These dogs
are trained to distinguish scents by recognizing molecules scattered in the
environment. Human scents are usually classied into primary, secondary,
and tertiary categories. The main category of scents includes genetically
determined compounds. Their relative concentrations remain constant
over time regardless of environmental factors.
These factors include diet, weather conditions, air humidity, state of
internals, emotional state, phases of the menstrual cycle, etc. The secondary
category includes skin scents that depend on internal and external factors.
Tertiary scents come from the environment (scents of the workplace,
cosmetics, cigarette smoke, gasoline, scents of other people or pets). This
method has also found important applications in the civil defence sector
and in judicial investigations.
Figure 3. The Main Dog Training Specializations in Canine Units (Summarized
by the Author).
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A military guard dog is dierent from police patrol dogs, which are
trained to protect a handler. Military guard dogs are trained to alert their
handlers to the approach or presence of strangers and are used to guard
supply depots, airports, military factories, bases and other important
facilities. Scout dogs are trained to work in absolute silence to detect
snipers, ambushes and other enemy forces nearby. Messenger dogs learn
to work o-leash and must be equally loyal to two trainers. They must be
motivated to leave one trainer to go to another, and vice versa, to transmit
and deliver messages at a distance.
Messenger dogs are also trained to move silently and hide in their
surroundings to keep themselves safe while following their routes. Mine
detection dogs are trained to nd tripwires, trap mines, as well as metal
and non-metal mines. Explosive detection dogs are trained to alert when
they detect the scent of relevant chemicals. Dogs are trained to respond
to the following scents: nitrate and chlorate salts, HMTD, TATP, PETN,
RDX (labelled and unlabelled), TNT, C4 (labelled and unlabelled), Semtex
A&H, smokeless powder, black powder, dynamite and their derivatives.
Some devices can only be detected by dogs because the explosives are
contained in wooden or plastic boxes and the electric fuse is made of
graphite.
Search dogs detect narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances,
such as marijuana, hashish, cocaine, heroin, LSD, methamphetamine,
ecstasy. Learning to nd electronic equipment by scent is the least known
specialization, which is highly in demand in dog training. trained detection
dogs can identify respiratory secretion samples from hospitalised and
clinically diseased SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals.
Rescue dogs are trained to search for both alive people and dead bodies
in obscure or hard-to-reach places. Cadaver dogs are commonly used in
police operations in special units. Cadaver dogs can nd whole bodies,
decomposed bodies, and body remains (such as blood, tissue, hair, bones,
and skeletal remains). Cadaver dogs can operate in water to nd submerged
bodies. They sit in front of the boat, scan the environment, and bark when
they intercept target molecules on the water surface.
This limits the search area and makes the work of divers easier. Presence
of the dog in the courtroom is a new direction in the training of working
dogs. A police dog is trained to handle emotionally strained situations,
such as cross-examination, where a rape victim comes face-to-face with
the assailant. The dog does not leave the victim in court, allows itself to be
stroked and hugged. This provides support in court for victims of crime,
especially those who have suered violence or sexual abuse.
Some military dog breeding organizations, such as the Swedish Armed
Forces, have their own breeding programmes. Dog training centres are
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Pavel Polián, Petr Polián y Igor Kopotun
The role of digital technologies for the canine units involved in the law enforcement in European countries
based in Märsta and in Kungsengen, north of Stockholm, as well as at the
dog breeding station in Sollefteå. Between 35 and 40 litters of German
Shepherds are born in the Sollefteå breeding unit every year (Swedish
Armed Forces, 2022). In the Canine Training Department in Märsta, dogs
are trained to patrol, search for ammunition, drugs and weapons for military
units of the Armed Forces of Sweden. It is important to note that causing
unnecessary suering to a protected animal is an oence (Legislation.gov.
uk, 2006).
This may include unnecessary suering caused by inappropriate training
methods. Electronic shock (static pulse) collars, digital anti-bark collars,
electronic restraint systems are specic training devices that the Scottish
Government does not approve. They may include any other methods of
physical punishment or negative reinforcement. This includes using any
device that injects oils such as citronella or other poisonous chemicals. They
interfere with the dog’s acute sense of smell, or emit any other aversive
stimuli. Dierent countries also purchase working dogs from specialized
breeders in Germany and the Netherlands.
Once assigned to a specic canine handler, each canine service dog
lives with its partner in the unit. Only law enforcement ocers who
have undergone appropriate canine training in specialized educational
institutions are allowed to work with working dogs. The youngest age of
working dogs usually starts between 12 and 15 months of age, because that
is when they are mature enough to concentrate eectively.
European K9 units are well trained and specialized in specic tasks.
In those units’ dogs outperform humans and machines in their ability to
identify and track scents even in stressful and challenging situations. For
example, in Sweden, the K9 sta includes 400 police ocers and the same
number of working dogs. Dogs are involved in 25,000 to 30,000 operations
each year. Most police dogs in Sweden are German Shepherds and Malinois.
More than 2,500 dogs work in dierent police departments in Great Britain;
most of them are Belgian Malinois (Palmer, 2021).
In Southern Italy and the main islands, special K9 units are combined into
helicopter police squadrons called Cacciatori (hunters) (Сarabinieri, 2022).
These units primarily operate in high-crime areas where the geography and
topology provide a criminal organization with natural hideouts to store
illegal weapons and explosives. Conceptually, this department is highly
specialized, which combines military procedures and police techniques in a
single operational vision.
The International Mine Action Standards (IMAS) are applied when
using, for example, mine detection dogs in European countries (Geneva
International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, 2022). IMAS 09.40
provides guidelines for using mine detection dogs (MDD). They are widely
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used for scent detection, including applications related to the military,
police, border control, health care, emergency response, and many others.
The standards 09.41 “Operational Procedures for Animal Detection,
09.44 “Guide to Occupational Health and General Dog Care” are also
used. Dog handlers together with trained dogs assist Explosive Ordnance
Disposal (EOD) and Improvised Explosive Device Disposal (IEDD) teams
in EU countries.
The European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) promotes,
coordinates and develops European border management. The Agency
acts in accordance with the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the
European integrated border management (IBM) (EUR-Lex, 2019). Frontex
provides technical and operational assistance to member states through the
development of standards (including in cynology).
An example of the expansion of the cooperation of the K9 units of
Europe in the context of the ght against the consequences of armed
conicts is the implementation of the Support to Strengthening of the
Canine (K9) Capacity of the Police Services to Detect and Conscate SALW,
Ammunition and Explosives Project (OSCE, 2022).
It also aims to increase the direct contribution of Kosovo K9 Police
to the prevention, suppression and investigation of the misuse and illicit
tracking of small arms and light weapons, ammunition and explosives.
According to the Project being implemented during 2020-2022, support
will be provided to relevant institutions in fullling their obligations
according to key performance indicators.
It is worth noting that new technologies using non-traditional materials,
such as polymers, are increasingly being used in the production of small
arms. Five K9 dogs were purchased for the police in 2020 under the United
Nations Development Programme in Kosovo and the Support to Countering
Illicit Arms Tracking (CIAT) project in Kosovo, funded by the German
government. They will be trained by certied K9 instructors and will be
engaged in nding polymers (UNDP, 2020).
European law enforcement ocers have begun training detection
dogs to seize electronic equipment such as USB drives, micro-SIM cards,
mobile phones, DVDs, CDs, external hard drives and memory cards.
Specialist canine units in this sector are called electronic storage detection
dogs (ESDD). ESDDs are taught to sni out a chemical component,
triphenylphosphine oxide (TPPO), which is common to most electronic
gadgets. The ability to sni out these electronic devices can be important
in a variety of criminal cases, such as child pornography, nancial crimes,
terrorist activity, burglary, murder, and many others.
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The National Police of the Netherlands and the police of Great Britain
used dogs as detectors for hidden digital storage devices the most among
European countries. Hertz, a German short-haired pointer, can be an
example of the result of such work, who was trained to detect personal
electronic devices while serving in the Royal Air Force Police. Since 2010,
Hertz has detected more than 100 items of contraband in Afghanistan,
including drugs and personal electronic devices that posed a serious threat
to the lives of military personnel and civilians. In 2022, he was awarded
the UK PDSA Dickin Medal in recognition of his service with the Royal Air
Force in Afghanistan (Grierson, 2022).
The use of various digital technologies in K9 units, which require the
appropriate equipment of the dog, is becoming very common in European
countries. The collar is not always the best place for equipment. It is one
of the strictest in terms of safety, space, weight and comfort. The weight of
any attached device should be less than the recommended norm of 4-5% of
body weight. It is important to make the device as small as possible and not
to use the entire collar circle in order to increase comfort.
This will allow the dog to lie down without device’s pressing down on the
neck. The collar design means not only the weight minimization, but also
the softest and most seamless surface near the neck. Unlike the collar, a
harness provides much more space. Built-in sensor technology is also used
as a new strap that ts into a dog vest.
Interest in the eld of animal-computer interaction has led to research
into computer technologies for communication between service dogs and
their handlers. Tactile (sensory) interfaces in the form of vibrating motors
are a promising approach to communication between the trainer and the
dog. Tactile interfaces can provide a silent method of sending commands
to a dog over long distances when voice or hand signals are inappropriate
or impossible.
Dogs can successfully communicate tactile sensations by responding
with a “message” by touching a target. Most modern electronic collars have
a vibration function that can direct the dog to return to the handler without
any verbal commands. The use of a UAV with cameras to monitor the dog
from the air during the dog’s performance of the task set by the dog trainer
is also worth of attention. UAV-based sensors enable collecting data about
the location of the dog within the environment and its interaction with
specic objects.
The data are transmitted in real time. There is also an option when the
dog is equipped with a video camera system on its head and a transmitter
connected to a monitor at the dog handler’s workplace. When the dog goes
in search, the dog handler observes through the monitor what the dog sees
at a distance of up to 10 kilometres. At the same time, the UAV overhead
watches the dog, which works with a daytime or infrared camera.
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The information is overlaid on a Google map, giving the team a unique
view of the search, showing where the dog has been and areas that require
further study. A discrete connection with the dog can also be built into the
system, so the handler can send the dog commands such as “seek”, “lay
down” and “return to the handler”. In addition, dogs can be equipped with
a GPS-like tracking device that works inside buildings, tunnels, etc. As soon
as a dog is sent to search, the track of that dog is then transmitted to the dog
handler’s display.
Horizon 2020 — the European research and innovation programme
— provides for establishing the connection between the cluster projects
DRS-02 ASSISTANCE, CURSOR, FASTER, INTREPID, PathoCERT,
RESPOND-A, RESPONDRONE, Search & Rescue, MED1stMR. They are
funded under SU-DRS02-2018-2019-2020 theme — Technologies for
First Responders — by sharing their concept and activities while creating
synergies and planning future joint actions. For example, integrated Next
Generation Integrated Toolkit (NGIT) for Collaborative Response is being
continuously developed under the European project INGENIOUS (2022).
NGIT is used directly during response operations and increases the level
of protection and operational capabilities of rst responders. This ensures
cooperation and coordination between team members, agencies, as well
as between victims and infrastructure owners. This results in an increased
situational awareness due to local and remote detection, monitoring and
analysis of passive and active threats.
It also provides fail-safe data and voice communication between teams
and victims. One of the objectives of INGENIOUS is to develop a set of
special wearable technologies and miniature sensors. They are to protect
and empower emergency responders and their K9 companions during
response operations. A vest designed for a search dog involved in the work
of a K9 unit can be an example.
The K9 vest provides the dog handler with the information about the
dog’s well-being, location and working condition. It oers two video streams
(HD and thermal) as well as bidirectional audio. Besides, it tracks the dog’s
location using a high-precision GNSS receiver. Communication is provided
through a connection to a local Wi-Fi network. Developers discussed the
interfaces of the K9 vest in detail with K9 units. They concluded that ease
of use, minimal overhead, and convenience would be most acceptable in
this case.
The main switch is used to turn the K9 vest on and o, including the
stabilizer and cameras. This button is located on a 3D printed box and is
carefully designed to prevent accidental pressing. An LED battery level
indicator is installed on the vest. The user interface includes a card to
record the GPS coordinates of the dog’s location. Information is provided
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almost in real time in the form of streaming video from cameras connected
to the main processor.
The vest provides real-time tracking of the dog’s position, thereby
providing detailed information of the dog’s detection with the help of
visual conrmation through cameras. This enables the dog handler to
remotely control the dog and communicate with detected victims via
smartphone. Video and audio playback functions are not an integral part of
eld conditions. However, GPS location and eld video are very useful for
commanders in the operations centre, who can have near-real-time images
of the situation in the eld.
The K9 vest successfully passed the test in wet conditions (moving in
shallow water and wet thorny thickets). The dog handler can use the two-
way speaker to give commands to the dog, to communicate with found
victims, to listen to the dog’s barking over the loud sounds of the rescue
operation.
The use of digital technologies in the work of canine units of European
countries can save the life of a service dog. The K9 ocers often leave
dogs in patrol cars during routine police operations. This can cause a dog
overheating situation, which can lead to the death of the animal. As a result,
patrol cars are equipped with innovative devices such as Hot-N-Pop Pro
and K9 Heat Alarm Pro (AceK9.com, 2022), which track information about
the temperature inside the car.
In case of high temperatures, a notication from the thermal alarm is
sent directly to the dog handler’s smartphone, tablet or PC with the internet
browser. After the alarm is triggered, the window automatically opens and
the fans or air conditioners turn on. Besides, the driver can remotely open
the door to allow the dog to leave the vehicle.
The involvement of dogs in the work of law enforcement and other
government agencies is also being actively implemented in Ukraine (Figure
4).
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Figure 4: Subjects of Canine Support in Ukraine. Source: authors.
For example, the use of canine teams in the State Customs Service of
Ukraine is regulated by law (Legislation of Ukraine, 2021b), a canine unit is
established in the State Border Service of Ukraine (Legislation of Ukraine,
2018b), and the canine units of the State Emergency Service (Legislation
of Ukraine, 2018a), the National Guard of Ukraine (Legislation of Ukraine,
2014) and the National Police of Ukraine (Legislation of Ukraine, 2016).
In 2017, the 2020 Concept of Development of Canine Services was
approved in Ukraine (Legislation of Ukraine, 2017). One of the tasks of the
Concept was to create an eective system of material and technical support
for updating the existing resources of canine units and providing them with
modern means of training, maintenance and use of service dogs.
Canine agencies can be established as departments, centres, units,
services, groups and divisions. For example, the State Customs Service of
Ukraine had 109 canine teams as of December 31, 2020. According to the
specialization types, 67 canine teams are trained to search for narcotic drugs
and psychotropic substances, 13 canine teams — to search for weapons,
parts for weapons and ammunition, 17 — to search for tobacco products,
1 canine team to search for paper money, as well as 20 canine teams with
dual specialization (State Customs Service of Ukraine, 2021). In 2021, the
canine teams detected 616 items and substances prohibited for movement
across the customs border of Ukraine.
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In 2021, the canine units of the State Emergency Service of Ukraine
were involved 71 times in the search for victims in forest (mountainous)
areas and in the destroyed buildings, having saved the lives of 18 people
(State Service of Ukraine for Emergency Situations, 2021). According to
the results of the annual certication for determining the level of training
of canine teams, 40 search and rescue dogs and 7 mine detection dogs of
the State Emergency Service were certied and allowed to perform their
assigned tasks.
Work has begun on the implementation of departmental digital
radio communication in the system of the State Emergency Service. The
departmental digital radio communication system has been partially
deployed in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions with the international
technical assistance from the UN Development Programme in Ukraine;
in Chernivtsi and Ivano-Frankivsk regions — due to the Cross-border
Cooperation Development Programme. By the way, Patron the dog from the
Chernihiv canine unit of the State Emergency Service, whose specialization
includes explosive detection, became a kind of symbol in Ukraine during
the armed aggression of the Russian Federation.
In May, he received the state Award for Dedicated Service presented
to him by the President of Ukraine V. Zelenskyi (Pavliuk, 2022). Patron
the dog detected more than 300 explosive devices. The Ukrainian Kennel
Union presented Patron the Four-Legged Defender Award in September
2022.
The standards in canine science developed by Frontex together with EU
countries are being implemented in Ukraine with due regard to the national
legislation). The International Mine Action Standards (IMAS) are used in
the practical activities of the canine units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.
Canine units of Ukraine face a number of problems. These include the lack
of comprehensive legislative regulation in this area, a heavy burden on the
dog handler and the dog.
There is a lack of a sucient number of institutions in the country for
the eective training of dog handlers, as well as an understaed canine
unit in dierent bodies and services. A positive step in this area was the
development and implementation of the State Standard for the training of
dog handlers (code 6129 of the Classier of Professions, DK 003:2010) in
the Canine Training Centre of the State Border Service of Ukraine.
The provisions on the feeding of working dogs are also outdated
(Legislation of Ukraine, 2001). However, positive changes regarding the
feeding of working dogs of the canine units of the State Customs Service
of Ukraine with dry food are worth noting (Legislation of Ukraine, 2021a).
The use of dogs that do not meet the requirements for work in the canine
unit because of their health or age has not been fully regulated. Legislative
regulation of the status of working dogs is also required.
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Detection, patrol and search, special, convoy, guard dogs, reserve,
breeding dogs, puppies are used in canine units of Ukraine. For example, the
concepts of a border service detection dog, a border control detection dog,
a special dog, a mine detection dog, a guard dog, a breeding dog, a service
dog, puppies were introduced in the border canine service (Legislation of
Ukraine, 2018b). According to the introduced changes, detection and attack
dogs are legally established in the State Border Service (State Border Service
of Ukraine, 2022). These changes include the possibility of transferring
dogs for care and lifelong maintenance to a canine inspector, as well as
natural or legal persons of any form of ownership upon their consent.
The storage conditions of the original scents shall be revised. The
legislation of Ukraine provides for a possibility of using original narcotic
and psychotropic substances during a special canine training course
(Legislation of Ukraine, 2009). However, this option does not nd practical
application because of insuciently regulated method of storage of such
substances, as well as the conditions of their use. This is why the employees
are not willing to bear responsibility for the failure to comply with the
relevant requirements. Scent substitutes are mostly used in such cases,
which do not create a more stable reex in the dog.
In 2022, in view of the consequences of the criminal aggression of the
Russian Federation, there is an insucient level of organizational, legal and
material support of canine units during the martial law in Ukraine.
4. Discussion
It can be stated that allowing animals to engage in species-specic
behaviours can lead to an overall positive state of well-being, provided
the minimization of negative aective experiences. Recognizing the
vulnerability of working dogs leads to moral obligations and duties of justice
(Vink, 2020). Industries that depend on working dogs must be proactive
and transparent in ensuring that their animal breeding and animal care
practices do not disappoint community expectations (China et al., 2020).
This is obligatory if people want animals to continue to perform these roles
(Gibson and Oliva, 2022).
It can be concluded that the use of digital technologies provides dog
handlers with real-time information about the behaviour of working dogs
and the environment in which they work. Related digital technologies can
measure aspects of dogs’ behaviour to assess temperament, predict training
success, and even monitor health (Bozkurt et al., 2014).
The use of cyber-physical systems to complement the two-way exchange
of information between dog handlers and dogs will enhance the sensory
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capabilities of working dogs and help them save more lives (Bozkurt et al.,
2014). Combining data streams obtained from body and airborne sensors
can provide more eective performance of remote scent detection tasks
(Foster et al., 2022). This will also ensure the well-being of the working dog
in a potentially dangerous environment.
It can be stated that animal-oriented digital technologies help people
to manage them. It is very important to carefully and consistently assess
the problems arising from the use of animal-oriented technologies (Van
der Linden, 2021). According to the researcher, the development of
hardware and software should be carried out in cooperation with those who
understand physiology and behaviour of animals.
It was found that cases of actual reduction of the amount (weight) of the
narcotic substance due to its physical properties (airing, evaporation) are
possible in the process of training. Such a situation can be considered from
the perspective of appropriation of a narcotic substance by a dog handler
(Seliukov, 2020). According to the researcher, the process of regulatory
settlement of this issue requires a more careful and thorough study of the
physical properties of narcotic substances in terms of their use for dog
training.
It can be stated that the proper resource provision, including the
provision of digital technological equipment, is the key to the eective
operation of canine units. Canine units are not a priority area of public
funding in view of the current political, social and economic situation in
Ukraine (Seliukov, 2020). Further development of this industry depends on
the increase of nancial investment. The researcher states that changing the
principles of the distribution of the budget for canine support is a priority.
The development of measures aimed at including the canine service in the
complex of defence activities at the level of the state policy of Ukraine is also
of great importance (Bezpalova, 2020).
Conclusions
Providing improved external conditions allows working dogs to exercise
freedom of action with potentially positive aective results. They have
more opportunities for voluntary independent purposeful behaviour that
they may nd useful. The sale and transportation of drugs, smuggling,
an increased number of armed conicts, and acts of terrorism indicate
the urgency of continuing to use working dogs as a valuable asset for law
enforcement agencies.
European K9 units are an important part of law enforcement. They
provide support and assistance in a variety of operations, including
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patrolling, drug control and emergency response. They help nd missing
persons, track lost or stolen items, detect rearms and ammunition, as
well as track and arrest crime suspects. Dog handlers have an additional
responsibility to protect their companion dog from undue risk. The dog
shall be intelligently obedient to hand signals, voice commands, and
premeditated training procedures.
Digital technologies are constantly evolving, the pace of development
of new equipment for service dogs and related tactics is accelerating
signicantly. Many projects in European countries are aimed at achieving
wearable modern digital equipment, appropriate ammunition and inventory
for working dogs. Sensory interfaces in the form of vibrating motors, UAV-
based surveillance sensors, tracking devices in the form of video camera
systems and similar to GPS are gradually becoming components of modern
European requirements for canine services.
Investment in new tools and training will allow K9 units to remain more
eective and safer. One of the objectives of the INGENIOUS Project is to
develop a set of wearable technologies and small sensors that protect and
empower emergency responders and their K9 companions during response
operations. The designed K9 vest for a search dog that is involved in the
work of the relevant unit can be an example. The developed innovative
device such as Hot-N-Pop Pro and K9 Heat Alarm Pro, which monitors
information about the temperature in the car, is also worth noting.
Canine units of Ukraine responsibly perform their ocial duties in
relation to compliance with laws, maintenance of public order and provision
of public safety in dierent areas of law enforcement. In 2022, Ukraine
does not provide a sucient organizational, legal and material support for
canine units in the context of approbation of digital technologies during the
martial law in view of the consequences of the criminal aggression of the
Russian Federation.
The mentioned European options of modern digital equipment for
working dogs, using the example of complex digital developments of the
INGENIOUS Project, and innovative devices such as Hot-N-Pop Pro
and K9 Heat Alarm Pro can be used as examples for the implementation
of appropriate digital equipment for canine units in Ukraine. These
innovations will become a further vector of research in the context of
conducting comparative law studies.
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Esta revista fue editada en formato digital y publicada
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Universidad del Zulia. Maracaibo-Venezuela
Vol.40 Nº 75
