Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
Publicación cientíca en formato digital
ISSN-Versión Impresa 0798-1406 / ISSN-Versión on line 2542-3185
Depósito legal pp 197402ZU34
ppi 201502ZU4645
Vol.40 N° 75
2022
Recibido el 15/02/2022 Aceptado el 25/07/2022
ISSN 0798- 1406 ~ De pó si to le gal pp 198502ZU132
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Vol. 40, Nº 75 (2022), 334-351
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Application of the method of computer
forensic simulation of crimes in the course
of an armed conict
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.4075.22
Andriy Tymchyshyn *
Oleh Zvonarov **
Olena Mokhonko ***
Vitalii Postryhan ****
Olena Popovych *****
Abstract
The objective of the study was to determine the characteristics
and perspectives of the use of computer simulation as a method
for investigating crimes committed in the course of an armed
conict. In addition, the study involved a system approach,
descriptive analysis, systematic sampling, doctrinal approach
and prognostic methods. The author chooses the technological direction of
application of the simulation (prospective or retrospective) and simulates
the characteristics of the event, the identity of the oender, the victim of
the crime and the sequence of the investigation process. In the course of
hostilities, computer simulation can be performed by representatives of
national and international law enforcement agencies, depending on the
type of crime. Computer simulation in the course of armed conict requires
standardization of procedures and improvement of the substantive and
instrumental components of the application of this method. It is concluded
that this model has dierent perspectives for its development, which
include: standardization of procedures with due regard to the specics
of the crime committed and the oender; details of information sources;
* PhD in Law, Head of the Law Department, Separate Structural Subdivicion of Higher Education
Institution "Open International University of Human Development 'Ukraine'" Ivano-Frankivska
Branch, 76010, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9591-8273.
** PhD in Law, Associate Professor, Special Chair, Educational and Scientic Institute of the State
Security, Nacional Academy of the Security Service of Ukraine, 03066, Kyiv, Ukraine. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7142-4842.
*** PhD in Law, Senior Lecturer, Chair Criminal Process and Criminology, Educational and Scientic
Humanitarian Institute, National Academy of the Security Service of Ukraine, 03066, Kyiv, Ukraine.
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2583-4445.
**** Doctor of Law, Associate Professor, Department of Public and Private Law, Faculty of Law and
Humanitarian Studies, East European University named after Rauf Ablyazov, 18936, Cherkasy,
Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3480-6443.
***** PhD in Law, Associate Professor, Department of International and Criminal Justice, Chernivtsi
Educational and Scientic Institute of Law of the National University "Odesa Law Academy", 58002,
Chrnivtsi, Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6778-4714.
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technological direction of simulation; possible types of models; and, the
need/appropriateness of involving international coordination assistance.
Keywords: law enforcement; armed conict; crime investigation;
criminal justice; forensic methods.
Aplicación del método de simulación informática
forense de delitos en el curso de un conicto armado
Resumen
El objetivo del estudio fue determinar las características y perspectivas
del uso de la simulación por computadora como método para investigar los
delitos cometidos en el curso de un conicto armado. Además, el estudio
involucró un enfoque de sistema, análisis descriptivo, muestreo sistemático,
enfoque doctrinal y métodos de pronóstico. El autorizado elige la dirección
tecnológica de aplicación de la simulación (prospectiva o retrospectiva)
y simula las características del hecho, la identidad del delincuente, la
víctima del delito y la secuencia del proceso de investigación. En el curso
de las hostilidades, la simulación por computadora puede ser realizada por
representantes de las fuerzas del orden nacionales e internacionales, según
el tipo de delito. La simulación por computadora en el curso de un conicto
armado requiere de la estandarización de los procedimientos y la mejora
de los componentes sustantivos e instrumentales de la aplicación de este
método. Se concluye que este modelo tiene diferentes perspectivas para su
desarrollo, que incluyen: la estandarización de los procedimientos teniendo
debidamente en cuenta las especicidades del delito cometido y del
delincuente; detalles de las fuentes de información; dirección tecnológica
de simulación; posibles tipos de modelos; y, la necesidad/adecuación de
involucrar la asistencia de coordinación internacional.
Palabras clave: aplicación de la ley; conicto armado; investigación de
delitos; justicia penal; métodos forenses.
Introduction
The ght against crime is extremely necessary for the stability and
development of society. Law enforcement agencies try to exert eective
inuence on criminals and their groups with due regard to the specics of
criminal activity (Tyagi and Sharma, 2018). This is why innovative methods
of detection and investigation of crimes reect the use of currently available
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Application of the method of computer forensic simulation of crimes in the course of an armed conict
technologies in criminal actions.
The use of the latest technologies (Caldwell et al., 2020) by criminals
led to the reorientation of law enforcement ocers to the collection of
mostly digital evidence (Freeman, 2018). In general, cybernetic methods
(Pryakhin, 2022), in particular data mining, their processing with the help
of articial intelligence (Shah et al., 2021), have become an important part
of crime detection (McClendon and Meghanathan, 2015).
Forensic innovations have provided a better understanding of the
dynamics of criminal activity, identication of criminal behaviour patterns
(Tyagi and Sharma, 2018). This, in turn, provided an opportunity to simulate
and predict the development of criminal situations (Blahuta and Movchan,
2020), to visualize various aspects of the committed crime through models.
Virtual reality becomes a component of forensic methods that increase the
quality of proceedings and trials (Ahir et al., 2020). Therefore, it became
possible to obtain evidence that is accepted in courts through general
methods of investigation of all types of crimes by means of digital forensics
(Rani, 2018).
However, armed conicts are an obvious challenge to law enforcement
and judicial systems. Armed aggression always results in massive violations
of human rights. The governments of states, the territory of which is covered
by hostilities, are objectively unable to eectively full their obligations to
protect citizens from criminal encroachments, including the payment of
compensation to victims.
The crime rate is increasing rapidly in the course of hostilities,
accompanied by an increased number of the most serious crimes in
its structure, the number of law enforcement ocers involved in the
investigation process is being signicantly reduced, so it is impossible to
ensure the proper safety of participants in criminal proceedings. The eorts
of international justice also do not guarantee a quick and eective trial of
cases on conict-related crimes and bringing the perpetrators to justice
(Farrell Rosenberg and Nassar, 2022).
The specics of hostilities necessitate the use of the newest methods of
digital forensics by law enforcement agencies, which enable generating a
set of evidence acceptable to the court quickly, qualitatively, safely with
the involvement of a small number of people. Computer simulation takes
a prominent place among such methods. At the same time, the analysis of
the signicance and eectiveness of computer simulation of crimes in the
course of hostilities faces a number of conceptual legal, organizational and
procedural problems.
As for the legal aspect, genocide, crimes against humanity and war
crimes are considered the most serious acts as the object of application of
the latest forensic methods. The international community considers that
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the prevention, investigation and prosecution of such crimes play a central
role in the ght against impunity (Interpol, 2015). War crimes committed
with the use of the latest weapons leave digital traces.
This becomes the basis for new sources and types of data, and
fundamentally changes the investigation of such crimes (Freeman, 2021).
However, little attention is paid to the fact that other violent and acquisitive
crimes are committed in the course of military operations, which also
require eective investigation.
Besides, the specics of the justice system are important because the
generated set of evidence must be accepted by the court. It can be both
a national and an international court for crimes committed during the
hostilities. However, international criminal justice is dierent from national
one, as the international justice does not appeal to harsh sanctions. This is
a humanitarian form of justice, where the victim occupies a central place
(Lohne, 2020).
The state plays the main role in the investigation and prosecution of
international crimes remains with the state. It has the duty and right to
exercise criminal jurisdiction when crimes are committed on its territory
or by its citizens (Mayans-Hermida and Hola, 2020). The International
Criminal Court only supplements national eorts (International Criminal
Court & The Oce of the Prosecutor, 2014).
This is why the national law enforcement and judicial systems carry
the main burden of detection, investigation and trial of criminal cases
about crimes during the hostilities. However, quite often the International
Criminal Court does not accept the evidence collected by “external”
(national) investigators (Braga da Silva, 2020).
This results in the organizational problems of using computer
simulation of crimes in the course of hostilities. Not all states that face such
acts have specially trained law enforcement ocers. This raises the issue of
conducting training of investigators. Ideally, every investigator in the eld
will be able to conduct expert research by connecting a laptop to databases
(Du et al., 2017). However, this is possible only with proper strategic
cooperation and ensuring the exchange of experience with international
specialists (Interpol, 2015).
The practical skills of processing information and forming databases
are an important procedural component of computer simulation of crimes.
During the hostilities, a signicant information array can be obtained with
the help of social networks. These platforms are obviously valuable for
collecting and storing the testimonies of victims and witnesses of crimes,
although they are limited in showing certain events and their evaluations
(Goldschmidt-Gjerløw and Remkes, 2019).
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Application of the method of computer forensic simulation of crimes in the course of an armed conict
Even in a normal situation, social networks are actively analysed to
detect and investigate criminal activity (Nizamani et al., 2019). This becomes
especially important in the military conict zones (Freeman, 2018). Among
other things, this will enable working out algorithms for cooperation
with civil society in order to integrate the results of the application of the
latest forensic methods into procedural activities (Zweig et al., 2018). For
example, the Oce of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court
recognizes the important role that civil society plays in the ght against
sexual crimes and crimes against children.
The Oce supports and strengthens cooperation with those civil
institutions that have experience in documenting such crimes and working
with victims (International Criminal Court & The Oce of the Prosecutor,
2014).
Although the area of intersection of technology, human rights and
criminal prosecution is relatively new, it will cover a wide range of
criminal cases in the near future (Freeman, 2018). Therefore, the use of
digital forensics methods in general and computer simulation of crimes in
particular will be increasingly expanding, especially in the course of armed
conicts.
1. Aim
In view of the foregoing, the aim of this study is to consider the specics
of the use of computer simulation of crimes in the course of hostilities with
the determination of problematic aspects to achieve the goals of justice.
The aim involved the following research objectives: clarify the legal,
organizational and procedural aspects of applying the method of computer
simulation of crimes in the course of hostilities; determine prospects for
the introduction of standards governing the use of this method in crime
investigation.
2. Methodology and methods
The sources which textually and contextually cover the issue of computer
simulation of crimes as a method of digital forensics were selected in order
to achieve the goals and tasks set in the article. Their analysis resulted in
formulation of the main legal, organizational and procedural aspects of the
subject under research.
The article also involved a generalization of the practice of international
judicial bodies and law enforcement agencies regarding the standards for
determining the signs of international crimes committed during hostilities,
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and regarding the results of the use of computer simulation of crimes in the
context of requirements for the presentation of evidence in national and
international courts.
This enabled determining the main prospects for improving the
eectiveness of the use of computer simulation of crimes in the course of
hostilities.
The aim of this study was achieved through the following methods:
the system approach was used to study computer simulation of crimes
as a logical sequence of actions of authorized persons for the generation
of evidence in criminal proceedings for cases on crimes in the course of
hostilities; descriptive analysis was used to identify and study the specics
of computer simulation as a method of digital forensics; systematic
sampling and doctrinal approach enabled identifying and describing the
features of crimes for which computer simulation is used in the course of
hostilities; forecasting was used to determine the prospects for improving
the eectiveness of computer simulation of crimes.
3. Results
The application of the computer simulation of crimes in the course
of hostilities is a problem with many components. These reasons are the
following: a) the heterogeneity of crimes that can be committed during
hostilities, and the characteristics of criminals; b) characteristics of persons
whose authority may include simulation; c) specics that determine the
organizational and procedural aspects of the application of this forensic
method.
With regard to crimes committed during hostilities, they represent a
heterogeneous set of dangerous acts. These actions are dierent in terms of
danger and subjects. However, they can be combined into one group based
on the situation — the crimes committed during the hostilities. Such crimes
can include: a) international crimes with their inherent features determined
by the International Criminal Court (genocide, crimes against humanity and
war crimes (International Criminal Court, 2013), sexual violence occupies
a special place in this list (UN; DPKO/DFS Specialised Training Materials,
2017); b) military crimes against the procedure of military service provided
for by national legislation (for example, disobeying an order, desertion); c)
crimes against national security (for example, treason); d) general crimes
that are not directly related to the conict, but the hostilities facilitate the
commission of these crimes and hiding of criminals from law enforcement
authorities (for example, murder, robbery, fraud) (see Figure 1).
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Application of the method of computer forensic simulation of crimes in the course of an armed conict
Figure 1: A set of crimes committed in the course of military operations.
The specics of the perpetrators are an important characteristic of
crimes in the course of military operations, which aects the specics of
the use of computer simulation. For example, perpetrators of international
crimes include both direct perpetrators and military commanders. A
military commander can be prosecuted for crimes committed by forces
under his eective control and command.
Even if the commander did not give the criminal order, he will be
responsible for the inability or the failure to exercise eective control (UN;
DPKO/DFS Specialised Training Materials, 2017). Besides, crimes can be
committed individually or in groups characterized by varying degrees of
cohesion (see Figures 2a, 2b).
Figure 2a: The specics of the status of persons who commit crimes during
hostilities
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The crimes of soldiers entail the responsibility of ocers.
Figure 2b: Quantitative composition of perpetrators who commit crimes during
the hostilities.
The data for drawing conclusions about the specics of the crime
committed during military operations are obtained from various sources.
Features of the combat situation determine the main aspects that should
be taken into account: a) the most eective collection of information that
can be used for computer simulation in hard-to-reach areas; b) objectivity
of the data obtained; c) safety of persons participating in the proceedings;
d) availability of information for all persons concerned (Freeman, 2018).
Messages in mass media and social networks become very widespread
sources of information during the hostilities (Sarkin, 2021). In particular,
social networks are a huge archive of digitized images. Having an image of
a person of interest to the ocers of the criminal investigation department,
it is possible to establish his/her location, connections, or at least the
direction for further search (Blahuta and Movchan, 2020). The results
of processing of the information obtained determine the choice of the
technological direction of applying the computer simulation as a component
of the investigation of the act by the authorized person - prospective or
retrospective (see Figure 3).
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Application of the method of computer forensic simulation of crimes in the course of an armed conict
Figure 3: Technological direction of applying computer simulation (Pryakhin,
2022).
The peculiarities of the committed crime, the specics of the available
information and the choice of technological direction allow the authorized
person to determine most appropriate computer models. Studying practical
experience allows us to single out the four most widespread types of models
that can be components of the investigation of crimes during hostilities.
They help to reproduce: a) the event of the crime; b) the criminal’s identity;
c) the victim’s identity; d) certain regularities of the investigation (see
Figure 4).
Figure 4: Types of models as a result of computer simulation of crimes in the
course of hostilities (Benz et al., 2022; Blahuta and Movchan, 2020; Gupta et
al., 2015; Horsman and Sunde, 2022; Jha et al., 2019; Longhi, 2021).
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The specics of the use of computer simulation of crimes in the course
of hostilities determines that only authorized persons - experts in the eld
of criminal justice - can apply this forensic method. At the same time, the
peculiarities of the crimes, in connection with which this simulation is used,
determine the principle of complementarity of eorts of international and
national law enforcement agencies and judicial bodies (Mayans-Hermida
and Hola, 2020).
However, the main way to achieve the goals of justice for crimes
committed in the course of hostilities is through national legal systems
(Farrell Rosenberg and Nassar, 2022). Their activities regarding serious
international crimes are coordinated and supported by Interpol (Interpol,
2015). This is why the subject competence of authorized persons can be
presented as follows (see Figure 5):
Figure 5: Subject competence of persons authorized to apply computer
simulation of crimes committed in the course of hostilities
The development of methods and tools of digital criminology enables
determining the main prospects for improving computer simulation of crimes in the
course of hostilities: a) meaningful innovations that are related to the formulation
of new tasks (Pavliuk, 2019; Wang et al., 2019); b) instrumental innovations in
terms of technical and technological support for computer simulation of crimes
(D’alessandra and Sutherland, 2021; Gunha et al., 2022; Shah et al., 2021) (see
Figure 6).
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Application of the method of computer forensic simulation of crimes in the course of an armed conict
Figure 6: Prospects for improving computer simulation of crimes in the course
of hostilities.
In view of the foregoing, it is considered appropriate to talk about the
reasonability of developing standard computer simulation procedures
that can be applied in most investigations of crimes committed in the
course of hostilities. These procedures should be based on the following
aspects: peculiarities of the committed crime and the criminal (criminals);
the specics of data obtained from available sources of information;
technological direction of simulation; the types of models to be applied;
the necessity/appropriateness of involving international coordination
assistance. This will enable standardizing the results of computer
simulations for the needs of national and international justice.
4. Discussion
Research on the application of computer simulation of crimes in the
course of hostilities is still lacking. In general, this problem is a component
of the theoretical applied discourse regarding the latest technologies in
detecting and investigating crimes. The digital forensics is currently not
only about the process of investigating computer crimes.
It provides methods of identication, storage, collection, verication,
analysis, documentation and provision of digital evidence in all categories
of criminal proceedings (Rani, 2018). As experts rightly note, this raises
the practical importance of technologies that: a) speed up data collection;
b) reduce storage volumes; c) provide timely review and analysis of
information; d) management of knowledge and archives (Du et al., 2017).
In general, it is emphasized that computer simulation of crimes is
quite widely used in countries with developed law enforcement systems.
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Ukraine is no exception (Avdieieva and Bululukov, 2019; Bilous, 2021). The
following models are mainly paid attention: a) crime scene reproduction
with the help of 3D visualization among other techniques (Wang et al.,
2019); b) forensic medical examination of victims based on 3D models
(Benz et al., 2022); c) facial reconstruction (forensic facial approximation)
(Gupta et al., 2015); d) criminal proling (Jha et al., 2019).
One should support the position of the appropriateness of using
simulation with regard to crimes committed in the course of hostilities,
because the creation of models is used mainly in those cases when the
study of the object, phenomenon or process in the original is impossible
for one reason or another. The authors correctly point out that the specics
of modern warfare led to the growth of the intellectual component in
armament. In case of crimes related to armed conict, this allows the use
of new types of data that can be interpreted in criminal proceedings as
evidence (Freeman, 2021).
In order to eliminate impunity, it is extremely important that states
strive to eectively investigate and prosecute serious international crimes
(International Criminal Court & The Oce of the Prosecutor, 2014).
However, it seems controversial to reduce crimes committed in the course
of hostilities mainly to international acts (for example, genocide, war
crimes, sexual violence and torture (UN; DPKO/DFS Specialised Training
Materials, 2017), against children (International Criminal Court & The
Oce of the Prosecutor, 2014). “Ordinary” crimes that are not related to
the conict, but are committed in the course of hostilities (robbery, murder,
etc.) also pose a signicant danger to victims and society. Their investigation
also faces the challenges of a combat environment and requires the use of
the latest forensic technologies.
The availability of simulations based on such technologies as social
networks, cloud computing, mobile technologies, information resizing,
encryption, and varieties of virus programmes for law enforcement ocers
is ambiguously evaluated, because they make the investigation quite
complicated and burdensome (Thakar et al., 2021; Rudyk et al., 2022).
In this regard, one should agree that constant technological innovations
guide the eorts of investigators, prosecutors, lawyers and judges to adapt
procedures for operations with digital evidence (Freeman, 2018).
In particular, the experience of the Joint Investigative Group
investigating the MH-17 crash can be considered a positive example. In its
conclusions, the Joint Investigative Group refers to a signicant amount
and dierent types of digital evidence, including data from open sources.
This made it possible to create models of signicant aspects of the event
(Freeman, 2018).
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Application of the method of computer forensic simulation of crimes in the course of an armed conict
The procedural dimension of the use of computer simulation of crimes
committed in the course of hostilities is also considered problematic. The
relevance of the issue of compliance with the fair trial standards is rightly
emphasized. This primarily concerns international courts (Zarmsky,
2021). It is suggested that the prosecution should provide the defence with
maximum access to the evidence base at the early stages of the proceedings
in order to ensure the fairness of the trial (Freeman, 2018). However, this is
not always possible because of the specics of crimes related to the armed
conict.
The results of this study indicate that the statement on the need for
common standards of proof and algorithms for collecting and securing
digital evidence should be shared. Proposals for improving data analysis
algorithms through visualization of information content (Thakar et al.,
2021) (for example, using a computer model to visualize the testimony of
the interrogated) seem promising (Pavliuk, 2019; Rudyk et al., 2022).
However, the position that all lawyers should become experts in how
to collect, store and use digital evidence may be a bit of an exaggeration.
This primarily concerns the use of data from social networks and other
digital communications in conict zones (Freeman, 2018). As concerns
international crimes, a point of view should be shared regarding the
appropriateness of uniting the eorts of national law enforcement agencies
(Interpol, 2015) and creating a legal framework for optimizing the use of
national investigations at the International Criminal Court (Braga da Silva,
2020). In general, these considerations can form the basis of the legal,
organizational and procedural aspects of the use of computer simulation of
crimes committed in the course of hostilities.
Conclusions
The conducted research provides the ground for drawing a number of
conclusions regarding the legal signicance, organizational and procedural
features of computer simulation of crimes committed in the course of
hostilities as a forensic method.
It was established that the mentioned crimes represent a set of various
actions united by the situation — they were committed in the course of
hostilities. Computer simulation of these crimes is used depending on
the specics of the act, status and number of persons who commit it. It is
shown that the authorized person chooses the technological direction of
applying the computer simulation method — prospective or retrospective
— as a component of the investigation of the act based on the results of
information processing.
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This makes it possible to determine the most appropriate type(s)
of models in a particular criminal proceeding. It was established that
representatives of national and international law enforcement agencies are
among the persons authorized to use computer simulation depending on
the specics of the crime. The further use of computer simulation of crimes
committed in the course of hostilities involves meaningful and instrumental
development of this activity.
It is proposed to develop standard simulation procedures to standardize
the results of computer simulation and their use as evidence in national
and international courts. They are determined by the following aspects:
specics of the committed crime and the criminal(s); the specics of data
obtained from available sources of information; technological direction of
simulation; the types of models to be applied; the necessity/appropriateness
of involving international coordination assistance.
This study opens up the prospects of working out the standards of
forensic support for the detection and investigation of crimes committed in
the course of hostilities with the further use of the evidence base in national
and international courts. A separate promising direction is the organization
of training practicing lawyers for the implementation and use of the latest
technologies in criminal proceedings and court proceedings.
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