Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
Esta publicación cientíca en formato digital es continuidad de la revista impresa
ISSN-Versión Impresa 0798-1406 / ISSN-Versión on line 2542-3185Depósito legal pp
197402ZU34
ppi 201502ZU4645
Vol.39 N° 69
Julio
Diciembre
2021
ISSN 0798- 1406 ~ De pó si to le gal pp 198502ZU132
Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas
La re vis ta Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas, es una pu bli ca ción aus pi cia da por el Ins ti tu to
de Es tu dios Po lí ti cos y De re cho Pú bli co “Dr. Hum ber to J. La Ro che” (IEPDP) de la Fa-
cul tad de Cien cias Ju rí di cas y Po lí ti cas de la Uni ver si dad del Zu lia.
En tre sus ob je ti vos fi gu ran: con tri buir con el pro gre so cien tí fi co de las Cien cias
Hu ma nas y So cia les, a tra vés de la di vul ga ción de los re sul ta dos lo gra dos por sus in ves-
ti ga do res; es ti mu lar la in ves ti ga ción en es tas áreas del sa ber; y pro pi ciar la pre sen ta-
ción, dis cu sión y con fron ta ción de las ideas y avan ces cien tí fi cos con com pro mi so so cial.
Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas apa re ce dos ve ces al año y pu bli ca tra ba jos ori gi na les con
avan ces o re sul ta dos de in ves ti ga ción en las áreas de Cien cia Po lí ti ca y De re cho Pú bli-
co, los cua les son so me ti dos a la con si de ra ción de ár bi tros ca li fi ca dos.
ESTA PU BLI CA CIÓN APA RE CE RE SE ÑA DA, EN TRE OTROS ÍN DI CES, EN
:
Re vicyhLUZ, In ter na tio nal Po li ti cal Scien ce Abs tracts, Re vis ta In ter ame ri ca na de
Bi blio gra fía, en el Cen tro La ti no ame ri ca no para el De sa rrol lo (CLAD), en Bi blio-
gra fía So cio Eco nó mi ca de Ve ne zue la de RE DIN SE, In ter na tio nal Bi blio graphy of
Po li ti cal Scien ce, Re vencyt, His pa nic Ame ri can Pe rio di cals In dex/HAPI), Ul ri ch’s
Pe rio di cals Di rec tory, EBS CO. Se en cuen tra acre di ta da al Re gis tro de Pu bli ca cio-
nes Cien tí fi cas y Tec no ló gi cas Ve ne zo la nas del FO NA CIT, La tin dex.
Di rec to ra
L
OIRALITH
M. C
HIRINOS
P
ORTILLO
Co mi té Edi tor
Eduviges Morales Villalobos
Fabiola Tavares Duarte
Ma ría Eu ge nia Soto Hernández
Nila Leal González
Carmen Pérez Baralt
Co mi té Ase sor
Pedro Bracho Grand
J. M. Del ga do Ocan do
José Ce rra da
Ri car do Com bel las
An gel Lom bar di
Die ter Nohlen
Al fre do Ra mos Ji mé nez
Go ran Ther born
Frie drich Welsch
Asis ten tes Ad mi nis tra ti vos
Joan López Urdaneta y Nil da Ma rín
Re vis ta Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas. Av. Gua ji ra. Uni ver si dad del Zu lia. Nú cleo Hu ma nís ti co. Fa-
cul tad de Cien cias Ju rí di cas y Po lí ti cas. Ins ti tu to de Es tu dios Po lí ti cos y De re cho Pú bli co
“Dr. Hum ber to J. La Ro che”. Ma ra cai bo, Ve ne zue la. E- mail: cues tio nes po li ti cas@gmail.
com ~ loi chi ri nos por til lo@gmail.com. Te le fax: 58- 0261- 4127018.
Vol. 39, Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre) 2021, 852-869
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Recibido el 17/02/2021 Aceptado el 15/05/2021
To Study the Formation and Increase of
Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.3969.52
Ali Abas Dinarvand *
Ahmad Azin **
Alireza Golshani ***
Abstract
In the era of the Islamic Revolution and later the traditional
networks and connections available in Iran that were generally
religious, such as: mosques, tekyehs (place of Shia mourning
for Imam Hussein), religious boards and seminaries, along
with also religious values and norms in society a particular form
of social capital was created. The main objective of the study
is to analyze the formation and increase of social capital in the
Islamic Republic of Iran. To achieve this objective, descriptive
and documentary data collection methods are used. The collected
materials are then categorized and used using the tab technique to obtain
considered results. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that
the existing traditional networks in Iran that continued to the farthest
reaches of Iran, religious norms are mentioned as eective factors in the
creation and increase of social capital and a factor of condence-building
between social and religious leaders.
Keywords: social capital; social norm; social network; collective identity;
stability and security.
* P.h.D. student, Department of Political Science, Shahreza Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahreza,
Iran. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9408-3593. Email: dinarvand2002064997@gmail.com
** Asistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Isfahan Branch(khorasgan), Islamic Azad University,
Isfahan, Iran. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2109-083X. Email: dr.ahmadazin96@gmail.
com
*** Assocoate Professor, Department of Political Science, Shahreza Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Shahreza, Iran. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2436-2308. Email: pir@iaush.ac.ir
853
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
Formación y aumento del capital social en la
República Islámica de Irán
Resumen
En la era de la Revolución Islámica y posteriormente las redes y
conexiones tradicionales disponibles en Irán que eran generalmente
religiosas, como: mezquitas, tekyehs (lugar de luto chiíta para el Imam
Hussein), juntas religiosas y seminarios, junto también a valores y normas
religiosas en la sociedad se creó una forma particular de capital social. El
objetivo principal del estudio es analizar la formación y el aumento del
capital social en la República Islámica de Irán. Para alcanzar ese objetivo,
se utilizan métodos descriptivos y de recopilación de datos documentales. A
continuación, los materiales recopilados se categorizan y utilizan mediante
la técnica de cha para obtener resultados considerados. Con base en
los resultados obtenidos, se puede concluir que las redes tradicionales
existentes en Irán que continuaron hasta los lugares más lejanos de Irán,
se mencionan las normas religiosas como factores efectivos en la creación
y aumento del capital social y factor de creación de conanza entre
líderes sociales y religiosos. Podría suponerse que la revolución islámica
fue producto del capital social y ayudó a formar este capital. Este capital
apareció en forma de dedicación, apoyo sentimental y colectivismo.
Palabras clave: capital social; norma social; red social; identidad
colectiva; estabilidad y seguridad.
Introduction
In Islamic Revolution formation era and, a special form of social
relationships has been formed among Iranian based on trust that simplied
their social actions for achieving their goals and ideals in that restless era.
By passing crises of early revolution, trustworthy values faded out in all
dierent levels of society. Governments that have an appropriate social
capital and sympathy and trust run among their dierent levels (Micro,
Middle and Macro) are able to deal with problems. For this reason,
sympathy, trust, and social consistency in society is one of current needs
of Iran society.
Nonetheless, there are still several challenges and issues in our society
which should be addressed urgently. Take, for instance, internarial
challenges, including the globalization of politics, economy, culture,
communications, environmental crises, the crisis of spirituality and morality,
expansion of the World Trade Organization, and global energy crisis. And
Internal challenges, such as young population issues, employment crisis
854
Ali Abas Dinarvand, Ahmad Azin y Alireza Golshani
To Study the Formation and Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
and ination, investment crisis, oil-dependent economy, drugs and AIDS,
migration of talents abroad and so forth.
This study aims at nding answers to following questions: what are
eective factors on increasing social Capital in Iran? Existing traditional
norms and networks in Iran are basis of social participation of Iranian,
their coherent presence in defending the country. Leadership and its
coherence role in dierent social levels and groups solidarity, existence of
justice, stability, and security in society, providing a basis for individuals
and groups participation and supporting social networks, investment in
social relationships resources are eective factors on social capital.
1. Theoretical framework and research literature
Social Capital refers to symbolic and material resources that is obtained
via social connections and is used for purposive actions (Chan, 2003). It
is a meta-disciplinary concept in human sciences that is about the role
of social forces in communities’ development. This approach shows the
importance of social connections and structures roles in economic, social,
and political variables. Promoting social capital indicators causes human
capital; material and economic capital interact with each other, grow, and
become dynamic.
Social Capital was used in its modern meaning in 1916 in Hanifan’s
writings the school supervisor of Western Virginia in the U.S.A. Wolkak
and Narayan dierentiated four fundamental approaches about social
capital: socialism approach, network approach, institutional approach, and
synergistic approach.
In another classication related to social capital, two kinds of social
capital have been separated: in-group social Capital or bonding social
capital and outgroup social capital or bridging social capital. In-group
social capital refers to social links that is based on similarity and intimacy.
In this dimension of social capital is emphasized on personal resources such
as family, neighborhood links and friendship links. In contrast, outgroup
social capital refers to connections that rely on common interests instead of
relying on personal familiarity and shared identity.
James Coleman for dening social capital used its role and function and
presented a functional denition of social capital. Accordingly, social capital
is not a single object, but it has dierent things that have two common
features. All of them have a social structure and facilitate individual certain
actions into structure, He believes that social capital in turn is made when
relations among individuals is changed in a way that facilitates action
(Coleman, 1988).
855
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
Fukuyama believes that social capital is a tangible sample of an
informal norm that promotes collaboration between two or among several
individuals. He believes that trust, networks, civil society that relate to
social capital are production of it not its constituent elements. Fukuyama
has recognized transaction expenditure as expenditure that are imposed on
all organizations and cultures in the lack of social Capital (Fukuyama,1995).
Glen Loury in his criticism of income racial inequality neoclassic
theories and their political consequences has reached to social capital
concept. Loury argues that orthodox economic theories are individualistic,
and they have only considered individual human capital and creating a eld
for competition based on individual skills (Loury, 1976).
Nun Lin by presenting social resources theory (1982) discussed that
access to social resources and using them can lead to better economic-social
conditions. From Lin’s viewpoint in most of societies valuable resources are
wealth, power and social basis thus individual social capital is measurable
in terms of the amount or variety of people whom an individual has direct
or indirect connection with them (Tavasoli and Mousavi, 1995).
2. Methodology
In this study for dening concepts, indicators, and variables and to
compile research theoretical literature, related resources to topic, books and
articles, journals, quarterlies and authentic internet websites in Persian,
English and Arabic have been collected. Then collected materials have been
categorized and have been used by che technique and nally data were
analyzed to obtain considered results.
3. The Formation of Social Capital
3.1. Islamic Revolution
Most people who were members of mosques networks informally also
participated in religious boards. Some people besides having membership
in these two informal networks (mosques and religious boards) were
members of formal network of Islamic schools. Wideness (and compaction)
of networks on one side and membership in dierent networks on other side
provided conditions for establishing stronger connection and simplied
cooperation for a common collective action like participating in March and
demonstration.
Social traditional networks have similar functions in most Islamic
countries. For instance, at the same time with revolutions known as The
856
Ali Abas Dinarvand, Ahmad Azin y Alireza Golshani
To Study the Formation and Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
Arabic Spring (Arab Revolution) in Egypt, mosques were usually practical
replacement for traditional political tools such as parties, organizations
and social movements that were suppressed over the past decades and
did not have any power to mobilize and organize demonstrators in face of
sovereignty (Bardici, 2012).
In Islamic countries that do not have freedom of speech and their
press, media and political parties do not have any eective roles in society,
mosques would be able to have important roles as the most coherent social
network independent of government (Esposito, 1999; Sadeghi Rad and
Mousavi, 2020). In the Islamic Republic, isolated institutions and social
traditions got into community again and reconstructed Iranian lost identity
in a crucial and sensitive period in the Western modernity era. Iranian
sought development in return to Islamic and Iranian root.
3.2. Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
• Leadership
Imam Ali in Nahj al-Balagheh in explaining the role and position of
leader in society said: “leader is like a rm rope that unies pieces and
connected them. If this rope is torn all pieces will scatter and each piece
will go to one side and can never be collected” (Sayed Razi, 2005: 445). In
another saying he pointed to pivotal ruler and said: “leader or ruler of a
society is like a mill axis that individuals circulate around him regularly”
(Fakhar et al., 2016: 127).
Mir Mohammad Sadeghi utilizes Between Centrality concept for
explaining active connector role in analyzing connectors’ network. In this
model, social capital is formed for pyramid head. Other connected heads
benet of this relation, too. Between Centrality concept shows that players
who establish relation among structural holes in a network have more
centrality. A player with high Between Centrality is an actor that has been
able to connect two dierent parts of network. In normal situation this is
not possible. That is, lack of actor causes lack of connection between two
parts of network (Mir Mohammad Sadeghi, 2012).
Leader symbolic capital not only creates social capital for leader and
causes condence and trust to dierent strata of society but also this capital
spreads in dierent social layers and it produces social capital for society
and keeps dierent social groups together and ties their destiny to each
other around leadership entity.
“Velayat-e Faghih
4
” is religious democracy in political system. It
guarantees “political institutes continuity” and in social dimensions it
4 Shiites believe that after the prophet of Islam and Shiite imams, jurists as the deputies of the twelfth
imam have the exclusive right to rule
857
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
guarantees “social network continuity” and is an important part of social
Capital in Iran, it injects “certainty” “trust” and “hope” to social strata.
4. Investment in social relationships resources
Social resources theory is one of theories that is used for conceptualization
of social capital (along with two other theories of weak tie’s theory and
structural split). This theory roots in Lin and Coauthor studies in 1981, it
does not consider current connections in network useful without resources
inside it. Based on this theory only current resources inside network can
be considered as capital. From Lin’s viewpoint, valuable resources in most
societies are wealth, power, and social basis. Thus, individuals’ social
capital is measurable according to the rate or variety of others’ features that
an individual has direct or indirect connections with them (Tavasoli and
Mousavi, 1995).
Briey, according to this theory members of network have valuable
resources that can help them to achieve their goals (Fafchamps, 2006).
When without any expectations to mutual action we help others then
mutual action will take place, that is, mutual action is a process that is
created by social capital via helping others. When a person helps someone,
a ring is added to endless chain. Whenever and wherever that person needs
to be helped this investment will help him (Fafchamps, 2006). The amount
of social capital owned by an individual depends on the size of connections
network that can mobilize eectively.
Additionally, it depends on capital volume (economic, cultural, or
symbolic) is owned by people who are in relationship with him. Someone who
has wider relationships has more social capital. These relationships should
have signicant trust, intimacy, and depth. Leana and Pil (2006) justied
that the value of individual connections or the amount of his social capital
depends on the number of connections he establishes and the amount of
relationships capital (cultural, social, and economic). Thus, investment in
more communicational networks, paying attention to networks quality and
the amount of capital (cultural, social, and economic) that these networks
give a person or group are important in the kind of investment in social
relationships and it can lead to social capital increase.
In the weakest and the most general formation, fundamental claim is
that social capital is a resource that actors can use to achieve their goals
(Leana and Pil, 2006). Individuals, organizations, or institutes should
increase the quality and volume of their communicational networks and
relationships for achieving and saving more volume of this capital. This
capital has been generalized in all social levels not only in a special level
(individual, group, society) it has been created and acts among these levels.
858
Ali Abas Dinarvand, Ahmad Azin y Alireza Golshani
To Study the Formation and Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
It is widely believed that social communications need work. Correlation
inside networks is possible only because it increases material and symbolic
benets of members. Thus, preserving them needs collective or individual
investment strategies to change accidental relations such as neighboring,
kinship and cooperation relations to social relations that can be used
directly in short term or long term. Accordingly, investment changes to an
endless eort for collectivism (Leana and Pil, 2006).
From social capital viewpoint, success depends on social position of
individuals in organization rather than their features. Thus, individual
position in social relations network determines individual’s social capital
limit (Hajikarimi and Farajian, 2009).
When we can invest in our relations, we also would be able to invest
in associations, groups and organizations that we depend on them. For
instance, most of nonprot institutes have an emergent need to nancial,
service, time, and help. To reinforce personal resources such as voluntary
participation in an event or serving in a committee are considered an
investment in our social Capital (Fafchamps, 2006).
For cooperating among dierent micro, middle and macro levels in
society, being a sense of trust is necessary. The enemy of social coherent is
something that John Platt calls it social traps. To achieve to goals is subject
to cooperation of all people. Thus, in situations that people cannot trust
others’ cooperation lack of cooperation is considered as a kind of logical
behavior. Eective cooperation for achieving common goals happens when
people trust others ‘cooperation (Rothstein, 2005). According to social trap
logic even individuals who want to play fairly, continue their treacherous
behavior because they believe that almost all other people betray (Rothstein,
2005).
Rothstein believes that social trust is not produced from bottom it is
produced from above. More precisely there is a special kind of political
institutions that produce trust. Governmental institutional and policies that
produce political, legal, and social equality and have been formed based
on justice, honesty and impartiality produce trust (Rothstein, 2005). The
existence of trustworthy public political institutions produces social capital.
Conversely, the existence of discriminatory or corrupt political institutions
causes social capital erosion in society (Rothstein, 2005).
Promoting social capital is time consuming and long term. Promoting
it is impossible or dicult in short term. Intervention policies in social
capital should be stable that is, conditions and tools of its performance
should be considered in wider time interval. Social capital resources have
been distributed unfairly and unevenly and individual communicational
networks and social groups do not have the same power and quality.
Government intervention for eliminating these inequalities by approving
859
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
appropriate rules for simplifying the poor access to social capital resources
and no hoarding by inuential groups is very vital.
There are dierent ways to increase social capital. The rst strategy is
to invest in micro level. In this strategy development projects are made
by social networks, exchange equipment, norms, traditional authority
systems, kinship structures, local systems values, and beliefs. Another
strategy is to invest in middle level units of organization such as villages,
towns, and cities and in organization units that act inside these space units.
The third strategy is to invest in macro level. This kind of investment is
expensive and more comprehensive that it can be implemented. Thus,
investment in this level is dicult despite this fact that it can have wide
eects on economic development. Thus, more practical strategy is to invest
in special organizational units inside economic, political, and lawful systems
(Serageldin and Dasgupta, 2001).
For increasing social capital, it should be tried to reinforce social relations.
In addition, an appropriate environment for individuals’ social activities
and movements and social groups should be developed. Government
should be aware not to harm individual social capital savings unless they
use their social capital for achieving their misconduct goals (Leana and Pil,
2006). Destruction of social Capital is simpler than its renewal so a cost of
repairing should be considered for social capital that is usually in form of
time. Time is main cost of formation and reinforcement of social Capital
(Bueno et al., 2004).
5. The eect of stability and security on social capital
Lack of security in society causes individual leave public domain and
continue their lives and activities in fear and isolation. Feeling of security
causes individual not to be concern about interaction with others in social
environment and peace will ow in society and will lead to train social
healthy characters who have collectivism spirit.
Whether individual or collective, social capital is formed and accumulated
during time. Accumulation such capital needs to be sure of future, trust is
a kind of investment in relationships among people based on expectations
and time.
Crises sometimes promote social coherence and make society members
turn to collective energies. They sometimes have a privative eect on social
trust level in mentioned society and dominates distrust atmosphere on
society. Thus, crises, social and political conditions of country can also have
eect on increasing or decreasing social trust level.
860
Ali Abas Dinarvand, Ahmad Azin y Alireza Golshani
To Study the Formation and Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
Stability of political, social, and economic structures is one another
factor of increasing social capital in society. Breakdown of social relations
or social organization can be very devastating for social capital. It does
not mean for creating trust society should be static. Changes also have
comparability with trust. But on the condition that social changes happen
regular, gradually and in a certain and coordinated route. Ambiguous future
causes security loss and makes long term planning impossible because
long-term investment needs a safe and stable environment and insecurity
wastes capital.
Some studies emphasize on social capital role in increasing social
stability and security. Social Capital is basis of cooperation, trust, and active
participation in social life, and it is formed in the context of social mutual
relationships can originate from feeling of security and peace (Lindström et
al., 2003). Political instability is in direct relation with the amount of social
capital in political system. For this reason, Fine talks about the necessity
to pay attention to social capital. He claims that without understanding
and measuring social capital, we cannot reach an appropriate model for
managing society (Fine, 2001). With this approach, it is determined that
social capital can be inuential in instability discussion on several ways
(Holladay, 2009).
Society that does not have security, mental and physical existence of its
members will be in danger, all current capital will be lost, what happened for
Iranian in borders during imposed war
5
. An unwanted and imposed war that
followed by internal coherence in Iran but from another angle it destroyed
stability and security in some regions and consequently it destroyed social
capital. To provide security for citizens for voluntary presence in social
institution is one of state inherent duties in modern societies.
Requirements for political security, political freedom and institutional
requirements should be reinforced for motivation actors for productive
activities. So that networking among productive activities reinforced in next
stages because security is prerequisite for relations networks formation.
To encourage and reinforce civil institutions formation citizen security for
voluntary presence in social institutions, avoiding taking responsibility of
social, cultural, and economic dierent parts depend on the existence of
stability and security (De Carolis and Saparito, 2006).
6. Justice
We encounter deep inequalities in the eld of political power, social
basis and having economic resources. Social justice means reducing these
5 The war between Iran and Iraq which lasted from 1980 to 1988.
861
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
inequalities so that this process leads to equalities (Pasipanodya, 2008).
Andrew Heywood believes that social justice supports ethical distribution
of prots and rewards in society that are analyzed according to wage, prot,
health care, welfare benets and the like (Heywood, 2015).
We do not intend to consider increasing the amount of social capital
subject to observe justice in resources distribution, but it is believed that
there are several factors that have role in creating and promoting social
capital. Respect people rights is one of these factors. Social Capital has
a close relation with people rights. Granting rights to people makes
them satisfaction and trust level increase, nally social coherence will be
increased and presence of people in important political, social, cultural,
and economic domains will increase, it provides more people participation
in national plans.
Government can increase trust among citizens by creating equal societies
and providing context for opportunities equality, it helps better economic
improvement. The relation between government procedures in distributing
opportunities and increasing trust as the core of social capital theory is
observable. Government powerful and ecient institutions (such as three
forces of executive, legislative and judiciary and all related organizations
and institutions) can produce and promote social capital by taking a set
of measures. It seems spreading and developing authority of citizens
and consequently active participation in society require government
commitment and obligation (Slaughter, 2009).
Preventing the formation of Intergraph and exclusive relations
networks in government structures and creating equal opportunities for
all groups to take advantage of facilities and present potential and actual
abilities is necessary (Newton, 1997). Favorable institutional conditions for
the formation of social capital should have features that guarantee equal
opportunities for actors to use stable participation and collective interest
produce (Hawe and Shiell, 2000). Suppose people know that government
is benevolent of all citizens and does not take measures in favor of a certain
group and knows all positive or negative outputs and consequences. In that
case, it will help to improve public trust in society (Evans, 1996).
By presenting dierent approaches about trust, Trifunovic suggest
dierent variables as eective factors on trust. Among suggested factors
in their study, there is a meaningful relationship between ethical values
and feeling. Their study showed that social trust would be increased by
increasing ethical values and justice for respondents (Trifunovic et al.,
2010).
Sociologists believe that public goals such as democracy, social security
and social justice should be improved for promoting outcrop social capital
so that, individuals would be able to trust each other more (Papagapitos
862
Ali Abas Dinarvand, Ahmad Azin y Alireza Golshani
To Study the Formation and Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
and Riley, 2009). For improving social trust and moving toward justice,
vertical links among groups should be decreased and horizontal links
would be increased. In other words, having stable deep and rich networks
of relations, self-condence and trust would be simplied (Kajbaf and
Rahimi, 2011).
7. To promote and support social networks
In the valuable book’s introduction, “social capital,” the social capital
concept is comprehensively and briey stated: the basis of the social capital
theory is obvious. Its central theorem can be summarized in a phrase:
the importance of relationships. People can make eort to obtain things
that cannot achieve them by their own by communicating with others and
maintaining it. People are connected to each other via a set of networks,
they tend to join in common values with other members. Whereas these
networks compose a resource they can be considered as maker of capital.
When reserving capital is useful it can be useful in other elds. Generally,
when you know more people and have more common perspectives you can
earn more social Capital (Leana and Pil, 2006).
Each individual has a social network. This network can include dierent
kinds of relations such as friendship or emotional links, neighboring or spatial
proximity in oce, relatives’ relations…every relation has implications on
whole social capital reserving of an individual. All tribes, nomads and rural
assemblies and religious sects are based on common norms, these norms
can be used for realization of common goals (Fafchamps, 2006). Some
viewpoints about networks formation believe that people who have same
intellectual line can make friend and then share common activities.
• Common values 》 networks 》 common activities
It is better to say networks are formed around common activities and
places. This is a principle of focused organization of social network (Feld,
1981). In this case, physical proximity concentrated social networks. We
make friends with those who we work with them not with those who are like
us. We do not seek to nd people to make friends, but we make friends with
people who share a common physical environment (Fafchamps, 2006).
• Proximity 》 networks 》 similar function and common
information
Physical architecture expresses a special kind of architecture that
involves in creating social capital. Individual physical separation increases
functional distances. Important thing in civil engineering in social capital
is designing and making a special architecture of civil spaces that within
them togetherness and physical connection of people and having collective
863
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
spirit is important such architecture has been in Iran traditional houses.
Several families lived in a common house, families communicated daily
and continuously, and they had intimacy. Religious places and shrines
besides their religious function, were places to collect people and decrease
negative individualism feeling and promote collective spirit. This function
of physical environment has been considered by social capital ideologists.
Public places can provide neighboring, face to face communications and
showing informal norms in neighborhoods, strengthen these relationships
and increase social capital. Thus, appropriate civil designs can prevent many
social harms by providing appropriate places for social communications,
creating social feeling toward place, and promoting collective identity.
Urban space with symbolic architecture elements and mass formation zone
acts like a container of constituent’s factors of social Capital (Brondizio et
al., 2009).
Generally, the number of social participation networks in each group,
organization or society represents the rate of their social capital. Thus, the
wider participation networks in a group, organization or society, the richer
social Capital (Hooghe and Stolle, 2003). Successful group activity leads to
promote trust networks.
By the advent of the internet, type and amount of change that is created
in individual social capital means individual social capital cannot be
measured only by measuring his real-world events, but his social capital is
a collective of his real-world actions and virtual world actions. Virtual world
oers many facilities to people and groups. Some of these facilities can
increase individual social capital in real world and others decrease it (Vaezi,
2007; Ewing, 2009). The internet usage causes the lack of communication
in family, friends’ relationships but it can create a chance to interact with
more people by joining in new networks. These networks have dierent
economic, political, cultural, social, and communicational functions and
decrease face to face interactions.
Electronic media are eective communicational tools that can connect
isolated people to others. These media can help to create associations and
enable face-to-face conversations (Fafchamps, 2006). The most important
feature of internet in social capital issue is loss of body incarnation. Klotz
organized his all criticism based on it. Objective and face-to-face relations
are important factors in social capital formation. Non-incarnation, lack
of certain norms that are respectful to everyone, lack of social coercion
and strong organization are if the most important limitations of virtual
communities in social Capital (Klotz, 2004). Uncertainty of individuals’
identity in virtual social relations and fake identities destroys trust among
members of virtual networks.
864
Ali Abas Dinarvand, Ahmad Azin y Alireza Golshani
To Study the Formation and Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
8. To provide participation eld for all people in the community
To encourage and promote guild, professional and social institutions
and to encourage to create and promote social institutions are structural
solutions for increasing social participation. Individuals gain common
identity in social institutions. It makes them spread group cooperation.
Successful group activities lead to trust networks.
Interactions of social participation networks members are based on
oral communications and other participation form when there are not any
stutter or fear of telling the latent problem. Social participation networks
are healthy. Understanding and communication principle should exist,
and problems should be solved by strong reasoning and logic. Having
social participation networks represents the rate of society social capital.
The wider participation networks, the richer social capital in society. But
social network expansion is not criteria of social capital richness and its
usefulness. Participation should be consciously and for social legal goals.
(Leana and Pil, 2006).
Governments that encourage people to present in social activities
and devolve most of society aairs to social groups provide individual
participation and improve cooperation among dierent social groups. In
contrast, centered governments dominate on institutions and domains
presence of state is felt in all cases. It decreases social participation and
consequently social capital would be decreased. Having favorable conditions
for dierent social groups’ activities leads to more participation. Positive
social development is obtained when social coherence is reinforced, and
society would be less vulnerable against social breakdown (Galtung, 1996).
When social and mental eects of participation are internalized in
society, social capital is formed. Social Capital has several fundamental
functions: it improves society ability to present government function. It
increases possibility of action and mutual cooperation. It simplies relations
between citizens and government. It decreases information disadvantages
and increases information eectiveness. It increases informal society. It
decreases controlling costs and improves self-control force. It improves
quality of decisions. Government monitoring is decreased consequently
controlling costs are decreased. Social Capital aects political and social
participation, hope, exhilaration, and social correlation.
Society should be convinced that has power to inuence political,
economic, and social decisions. Thus, decreasing participation costs,
promoting and encourage social groups to participate by granting authority
and submitting social duties to them and sharing power with them will
increase social participation and social trust.
865
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
Conclusion
At rst social capital formation during two periods of Islamic revolution
and the sacred defense was studied. Existing traditional networks in Iran
that continued to the farthest parts of Iran, religious norms are mentioned
as eective factors in creating and increasing social capital and trust
creation factor between society and religious leaders.
The sacred defense was formed in line with revolution. Iran society
faced an enemy that wanted to destroy new values of society. Correlation
process, social coherence and deep changes happened in the fronts. It
almost covered all society. It could fade away religious and ethnic gaps that
were forming. It put the nation in a line. Warriors’ sacrices in the fronts
were beyond usual level of social capital theories.
Imam had a determining and coherent role in both eras of revolution and
sacred defense. All ethnic, religious and social groups trusted him completely
and obeyed him in dierent social-political scenes. Imam excluded Islamic
thoughts, religion and society from historical isolation. Imam Khomeini
organized social capital and coherent and strong communicational networks
by connecting all social groups around velayat-e faghih and created social
coherence. Leader considers as a symbolic capital, sign and axis of society,
hearts connectors. Society can be a coherent and united unit in the shadow
of leadership that trust is in all its parts.
Religion as a part of Iran society identity has a determining role in
creating and increasing social capital. Preserving society religious identity
leads to social coherence and sympathy. National identity forms another
dimension of Iran collective identity that includes language, history,
customs, and national celebrations.
Investment on more communicational networks and paying attention
to networks quality and the amount of capital (cultural social economic) is
important in type of investment in social relations and it can lead to social
capital increase. To preserve this capital needs individual or collective
investment strategies having a sense of trust among micro, middle and
macro levels of society is prerequisite of cooperation among these levels.
Social Capital because of its nature needs a stable and safe environment for
growing and improving.
Social Capital has close relationship with justice and nation rights.
Granting rights to nation increases trust and people satisfaction level
and nally increases union and social coherence and provides situations
for people presence in important political, social, cultural, and economic
scenes and more participation in national programs. There is a clear
relation between government procedures in distributing opportunities and
increasing trust as the heart of social capital theory.
866
Ali Abas Dinarvand, Ahmad Azin y Alireza Golshani
To Study the Formation and Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
Encouraging to create and promote social, professional institutions is
one of structural solutions for increasing social capital. Successful group
activity leads to improve trust networks. Individual social capital is a set of
actions in real and virtual worlds. Most of researchers refer to the role of
virtual networks in increasing social capital. Having a positive look to this
phenomenon and providing conditions for spreading it can lead to social
coherence.
Bibliographic References
BARDICI, Minavere Vera. 2012. A discourse analysis of the media representation
of social media for social change-The case of Egyptian revolution and
political change. Available online. In: https://www.diva-portal.org/
smash/get/diva2:1482748/FULLTEXT01.pdf. Date of consultation:
01/11/2020.
BRONDIZIO, Eduardo S; OSTROM, Elinor; YOUNG, Oran R. 2009.
“Connectivity and the governance of multilevel social-ecological
systems: the role of social capital” In. Annual review of environment and
resources. No. 34, pp. 253-278.
BUENO, Eduardo; SALMADOR, Marí Paz; RODRÍGUEZ, Óscar. 2004. “The
role of social capital in today’s economy” In: Journal of intellectual capital.
Available online. In: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/
doi/10.1108/14691930410567013/full/html. Date of consultation:
01/11/2020.
CHAN, Helen G. 2003. Conceptualising social capital: case studies of social
capital inputs into housing (Doctoral dissertation, University of British
Columbia). Vancouver, Canada.
COLEMAN, James S. 1988. “Social Capital in the creation of human capital”
In: American journal of sociology. Vol. 94, pp. 95-120.
DE CAROLIS, Donna Marie; SAPARITO, Patrick. 2006. “Social Capital,
cognition, and entrepreneurial opportunities: A theoretical framework”
In: Entrepreneurship theory and practice. Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 41-56.
ESPOSITO, John L. 1999. The Islamic threat: Myth or reality?. Oxford University
Press. New York, USA.
EVANS, Peter. 1996. “Government action, social capital and development:
reviewing the evidence on synergy” In: World development. Vol. 24, No.
6, pp. 1119-1132.
867
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
FAFCHAMPS, Marcel. 2006. “Development and social capital” In: The Journal
of Development Studies. Vol. 42, No. 7, pp. 1180-1198.
FAKHAR, Mahdi; DARABINIA, Morteza; MONTAZERI, Mahboobe. 2016.
“Some Islamic pattern in relation to food and water hygiene” In: The
Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication. No. 6, pp.
210- 248.
FELD, Scott L. 1981. “The focused organization of social ties” In: American
journal of sociology. Vol. 86, No. 5, pp. 1015-1035.
FINE, Ben. 2001. “Social Capital versus social theory: Political economy and
social science at the turn of the millennium” In: Psychology Press.
Available online. In: https://philpapers.org/rec/FINSCV. Date of
consultation: 01/11/2020.
FUKUYAMA, Francis. 1995. Trust: The social virtues and the creation of
prosperity (Vol. 99). Free press. New York, USA.
GALTUNG, Johan. 1996. “On the Social Costs of Modernization.
Social Disintegration, Atomie/Anomie and SocialDevelopment”
In: Development and Change. Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 379-413.
HAJIKARIMI, A; FARAJIAN, M. 2009. Human, Social and Emotional
Capital Management with Eective Approach to Career Success an
empirical study in Mellat bank. Available online. In: https://jipa.ut.ac.ir/
article_27939.html?lang=en. Date of consultation: 01/11/2020.
HAWE, Penelope; SHIELL, Alan. 2000. “Social capital and health promotion: a
review” In: Social science & medicine. Vol. 51, No. 6, pp. 871-885.
HEYWOOD, Andrew. 2015. Political theory: An introduction. Macmillan
International Higher Education. London, UK.
HOLLADAY, Sherry J. 2009. “Crisis communication strategies in the media
coverage of chemical accidents” In: Journal of Public Relations Research.
Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 208-217.
HOOGHE, Marc; STOLLE, Dietlind. 2003. “Introduction: Generating social
capital” In: Generating social capital (pp. 1-18). Palgrave Macmillan.
New York, USA.
KAJBAF, M. B; RAHIMI F. 2011. “Comparison of addicts personal/Social
motives and social capital among treatment groups in city of Isfahan”
In: New Educational Approaches. Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 125-148.
KLOTZ, Robert J. 2004. The politics of Internet communication. Rowman &
Littleeld. Maryland, USA.
868
Ali Abas Dinarvand, Ahmad Azin y Alireza Golshani
To Study the Formation and Increase of Social Capital in Islamic Republic of Iran
LEANA, Carrie R; PIL, Frits K. 2006. “Social Capital and organizational
performance: Evidence from urban public schools” In: Organization
science. Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 353-366.
LINDSTRÖM, Martin; MERLO, juan; ÖSTERGREN, Per-Olof. 2003. “Social
capital and sense of insecurity in the neighbourhood: a population-based
multilevel analysis in Malmö, Sweden” In: Social Science & Medicine. Vol.
56, No. 5, pp. 1111-1120.
LOURY, Glenn C. 1976. “A dynamic theory of racial income dierences” In:
Discussion paper (No. 225). Available online. In: https://www.brown.
edu/Departments/Economics/Faculty/Glenn_Loury/louryhomepage/
papers/A%20Dynamic%20Theory.pdf. Date of consultation:
01/11/2020.
MIR MOHAMMAD SADEGHI, M. 2012. Social Network Analysis with
NodeXL. Available online. In: http://ensani.ir/le/download/
article/20151209165337-9566-140.pdf. Date of consultation:
01/11/2020.
NEWTON, Kenneth. 1997. “Social Capital and democracy” In. American
behavioral scientist. Vol. 40, No. 5, pp. 575-586.
PAPAGAPITOS, Agapitos; RILEY, Robert. 2009. “Social trust and human
capital formation” In: Economics Letters. Vol. 102, No, 3, pp. 158-160.
PASIPANODYA, Tafadzwa. 2008. “A deeper justice: Economic and social
justice as transitional justice in Nepal” In: The International journal of
transitional justice. Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 378-397.
ROTHSTEIN, Bo. 2005. Social traps and the problem of trust. Cambridge
University Press. Available online. In: https://www.cambridge.org/
core/books/social-traps-and-the-problem-of-trust/02225C0BB48764F
18F287FD6569EEF2E. Date of consultation: 01/11/2020.
SADEGHI RAD, Hussain; MOUSAVI, Sayyed Reza. 2020. “Ayatollah Khamenei
and Reformism in Iran” In: Journal of Contemporary Research on
Islamic Revolution. Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 1-20.
SERAGELDIN, Ismail; DASGUPTA Partha. 2001. Social Capital: a multifaceted
perspective. The World Bank. Available online. In: https://documents.
worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdeta
il/663341468174869302/social-capital-a-multifaceted-perspective.
Date of consultation: 01/11/2020.
SLAUGHTER, Joseph R. 2009. Human rights, Inc: The world novel, narrative
form, and international law. Fordham Univ Press. New York, USA.
869
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 69 (Julio - Diciembre 2021): 852-869
TAVASOLI, GH; MOUSAVI, Marzieh. 1995. “The Concept of Capital in Classical
and New Theories with An Emphasis on Social Capital Theories”
In: Journal of Social Science Letter. Vol. 26, No. 26, pp. 45-66.
TRIFUNOVIC, Sacha; LEGENDRE, Franck; ANASTASIADES, Carlos. 2010.
“Social trust in opportunistic networks” In: 2010 INFOCOM IEEE
Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
VAEZI, Seyed Mohammad Reza. 2007. Weblog eects on social capital.
Available online. In: https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/rtds/2139/.
Date of consultation: 01/11/2020.
www.luz.edu.ve
www.serbi.luz.edu.ve
www.produccioncienticaluz.org
Esta revista fue editada en formato digital y publicada
en julio de 2021, por el Fondo Editorial Serbiluz,
Universidad del Zulia. Maracaibo-Venezuela
Vol.39 Nº 69
