Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
Esta publicación cientíca en formato digital es continuidad de la revista impresa
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ppi 201502ZU4645
Vol.39 N° 68
Enero
Junio
2021
Recibido el 14/08/2020 Aceptado el 12/11/2020
ISSN 0798- 1406 ~ De pó si to le gal pp 198502ZU132
Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas
La re vis ta Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas, es una pu bli ca ción aus pi cia da por el Ins ti tu to
de Es tu dios Po lí ti cos y De re cho Pú bli co “Dr. Hum ber to J. La Ro che” (IEPDP) de la Fa-
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Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas apa re ce dos ve ces al año y pu bli ca tra ba jos ori gi na les con
avan ces o re sul ta dos de in ves ti ga ción en las áreas de Cien cia Po lí ti ca y De re cho Pú bli-
co, los cua les son so me ti dos a la con si de ra ción de ár bi tros ca li fi ca dos.
ESTA PU BLI CA CIÓN APA RE CE RE SE ÑA DA, EN TRE OTROS ÍN DI CES, EN
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Pe rio di cals Di rec tory, EBS CO. Se en cuen tra acre di ta da al Re gis tro de Pu bli ca cio-
nes Cien tí fi cas y Tec no ló gi cas Ve ne zo la nas del FO NA CIT, La tin dex.
Di rec to ra
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Vol. 39, Nº 68 (Enero - Junio) 2021, 520-530
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Institution of Complicity in a Crime:
Comparative-Legal Interpretation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.3968.33
Gennady Nazarenko *
Alexandra Sitnikova **
Andrey Baybarin ***
Abstract
The objective of the study was to identify the design patterns
and distinctive features of the institution of complicity in a crime
in certain criminal laws. The methodology was based on the use
of legislative interpretation operations and techniques such as
the hermeneutics of criminal texts, which allows to identify the
structural, constructive, and substantive features of the rules on
complicity in a crime. The scientic novelty of the work lies in the
textological approach of the criminal-legal regulations of the institution of
complicity. This approach allows to interpret the standards in a comparative
aspect, taking into account the deep level of their construction. Among the
results obtained are:(1) the inclusion of complicity rules in other criminal
law institutions is an unjustied design technique; (2) the absence of a
complex of titles in the institution of complicity reduces the level of quality
of this institution; (3) the presence of denitive rules in the institution
of complicity signicantly increases its quality; (4) the differentiation of
accomplices in crime should not be excessive and arbitrary; (5) the rules
on attempted complicity in a crime increase the preventive potential of
criminal law.
Keywords: institution of complicity in a crime; criminal design traits;
differentiation of accomplices; innovative legislative and
textual approach; comparative legal interpretation.
* Department of Criminal Law of the Southwest State University, Kursk, Russian Federation. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7572-5100.
** Department of Criminal Law of the Southwest State University, Kursk, Russian Federation. ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1622-2797.
*** Department of Criminal Law of the Southwest State University, Kursk, Russian Federation. ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9183-3101.
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Institución de la complicidad en un delito:
interpretación jurídica comparada
Resumen
El objetivo del estudio fue identicar los patrones de diseño y rasgos
distintivos de la institución de la complicidad en un delito en las ciertas
leyes penales. La metodología se basó en el uso de operaciones y técnicas
de interpretación legislativa como la hermenéutica de los textos
penales, lo que permite identicar los rasgos estructurales, constructivos
y sustantivos de las normas sobre complicidad en un delito. La novedad
cientíca del trabajo radica en el abordaje textológico de la normativa penal-
legal de la institución de la complicidad. Este enfoque permite interpretar
las normas en un aspecto comparativo, teniendo en cuenta el nivel profundo
de su construcción. Entre los resultados obtenidos destacan: 1) la inclusión
de las normas sobre complicidad en otras instituciones de derecho penal
es una técnica de diseño injusticada; 2) la ausencia de un complejo de
títulos en la institución de la complicidad reduce el nivel de calidad de esta
institución; 3) la presencia de normas denitivas en la institución de la
complicidad aumenta signicativamente su calidad; 4) la diferenciación de
cómplices en el delito no debe ser excesiva y arbitraria; 5) las normas sobre
tentativa de complicidad en un delito aumentan el potencial preventivo de
la legislación penal.
Palabras clave: institución de la complicidad en un delito; rasgos de
diseño de la penal; diferenciación de cómplices; enfoque
legislativo y textual innovador; interpretación jurídica
comparativa.
Introduction
A crime that is recognized as a complex social phenomenon may
be committed by an individual or several individuals. The problem of
complicity is one of the key issues in criminal law. There is no doubt about
the need to reform legislation concerning the technological revolutions
taking place in recent years, which have a direct impact on all spheres of life
in society (Kirillova et al., 2020), as well as political, cultural, social, and
economic changes.
Complicity is one of the most important institutions of criminal law and,
at the same time, the most complex in the framework of law enforcement.
Complicity is a special phenomenon in criminal activity when several
individuals combine their efforts to achieve a single socially dangerous
result (Suonpää et al., 2020). As can be seen from the denition, the main
criterion by which complicity may be identied is the presence of willful guilt
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Institution of Complicity in a Crime: Comparative-Legal Interpretation
of all participants in the commission of a crime. Each accomplice realizes
the socially dangerous nature of the act, foresees criminal consequences,
and wishes or deliberately allows them, pursuing criminal goals and having
common intentions. At present, based on the analysis of the norms on
the institution of complicity in criminal law, it can be concluded that it
is important to apply it correctly. The theory and practice of criminal law
know various forms of joint participation of several persons in criminal
activity — complicity, indirect execution (or iniction), careless complicity,
involvement in a crime, joint participation in a crime of persons in the
absence of joint intent (mutual awareness) between them (Gunadi, 2020).
The value of the institution of complicity lies in ensuring effective criminal
legal protection of public relations from group criminal encroachments, as
well as creating an effective legal mechanism for the individualization of
responsibility and punishment of members of criminal groups. Based on
the above, it should be recognized that one of the strategic directions of
modern criminal law policy is to further improve the legislative structures
of the institutions of complicity in the criminal laws of states to counteract
group crime more effectively.
1. Methods
The legal method was used in this study, including legal and technical
methodology and methods of interpretation of the law. The legal and
technical method was used in the analysis of rulemaking. The system
of the code and each of its articles must comply with certain rules for
constructing the disposition and sanction of norms to be clear, direct, and
logically consistent. The interpretation of the law is possible in the way of
understanding the meaning and legal form – grammatical, logical, and
comparative and in terms of volume – authentic, expansive, and restrictive.
The criminal-statistical method was widely used, which is characterized
as the knowledge of the qualitative originality of criminal-legal phenomena
and concepts through quantitative indicators. This method was used
to generalize and quantify, for example, norms, their dispositions and
sanctions, the structure of punish ability, and criminal records.
The study used a systematic method that allowed researching criminal
law phenomena and concepts as systems, i.e., an integral set consisting of
subsystems and elements. The method was used in the analysis of lawmaking,
law enforcement and construction theory, knowledge, application of such
system institutions as criminal law, principles of law, crime, guilt, multiple
crimes, complicity, exemption from criminal liability, and punishment.
The principle of consistency should correspond to the location of sections,
chapters, and norms in the text of the code. The criminal code is the macro
system. The microsystem is a norm, the disposition of which describes the
corpus delicti, and the sanction is the type and amount of punishment.
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An important place was given to the comparative-jurisprudential
(comparative) method, which was used when comparing the codes of
various legal systems and states.
2. Results
The use of the comparative-legal method of researching the legislative
structures of institutions of complicity in the criminal laws of states makes
it possible to note the features of the design of the corresponding criminal
law regulations (Troncoso and Weber, 2020). These features are correlated
with several requirements of legislative technique and legal textology:
1. Institutions of complicity structure. The legislative practice of
structuring the institutions of complicity in the criminal codes of
states is very different:
– the norms on complicity are presented in the Criminal Code of
the Federal Republic of Germany in the form of an independent
institution “Execution, incitement, aiding and abetting”, the
Criminal Code of the Netherlands “Participation in a criminal
offense”, the Criminal Code of the Republic of Bulgaria
“Complicity”, the Criminal Code of Japan “Complicity”, the
Law of the Republic of Iran “Co-executors and accomplices
of a crime”, the Criminal Code of Spain “Persons subject to
criminal liability for crimes and misdemeanors”, and the
Criminal Code of China “Complicity in a crime”;
- in conjunction with the rules on preparation and attempt,
the rules on complicity are grouped in the criminal laws of
the Republic of Poland “Forms of committing a crime” and
Denmark “Attempt and complicity”.
– the rules on complicity are in one chapter with the general
criminal law provisions (Criminal Code of France “General
provisions”).
Rulemaking recognizes the structure of the institution as a source
of information creation of the institution itself. The inclusion of rules
on complicity in chapters containing rules of a general nature or other
institutions is an unjustied method of constructing criminal law institutions
(Boduszek et al., 2020). At the same time, clarity of presentation is violated,
and differentiation of legal prescriptions is difcult; there is a confusion of
norms that are different in their legal nature and an unclear expression of
legislative intent.
2. Article titles. Lawmakers of different states have different attitudes
towards the article titles:
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Institution of Complicity in a Crime: Comparative-Legal Interpretation
– article titles containing provisions on complicity are available
in the Criminal Code of the Federal Republic of Germany, the
Criminal Code of Japan, and the American states of New York
and Pennsylvania;
– article titles are absent in the Criminal Code of the Republic of
Poland, the Criminal Code of Denmark, the Criminal Code of
the Netherlands, the Criminal Code of the Republic of Bulgaria,
the Criminal Code of Spain, the Criminal Code of France, the
Law of the Republic of Iran, and the Criminal Code of China.
From the standpoint of legislative technique, as well as criminal law
textual criticism, article titles improve the structure of the law, facilitate the
nding of the necessary norms, their interpretation, and comparison with
each other, and discipline the drafters of the norms. The absence of article
titles hinders quick access to the necessary information about the structure
of the criminal law, the system relations of its institutions and criminal law
regulations, their mutual location, and content (Fernández-Campoy and
Aguilar-Parra, 2017).
3. Articles structuring. An analysis of the criminal legislation of states
indicates that there is an ambiguous approach to the rubrication of
prescriptions in lawmaking practice within the framework of articles
and paragraphs. Legislators use a variety of ways to structure articles:
– articles are divided into parts in the Criminal Codes of the
Netherlands, Spain, and the Republic of Bulgaria.
– criminal-legal regulations in the articles are highlighted as
paragraphs in the Criminal Codes of Japan, France, and the
Republic of Iran.
– as a structural component that differentiates the article into
independent norms is a paragraph in the Criminal Codes of
the Republic of Poland, Germany, Denmark, New York, and
Pennsylvania.
– the legislator uses paragraph literation as a compositional-
graphic device in the Criminal Code of China.
Differentiation of an article into its constituent parts using structural
components increases the consistency of the presentation of regulatory
prescriptions. Compositionally, the criminal law is a special text, which
must have digital and alphabetic literation of articles, divided into parts,
as well as the division of criminal law provisions using paragraphs (Hewitt
et al., 2020). Multi-stage gradation of articles improves the quality of the
interpretation of criminal law orders by updating (highlighting) the most
important segments of the normative text, which contributes to increasing
the efciency of law enforcement practice.
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4. Content of legislative mandates. The content of criminal legislative
mandates should: rstly, accurately express the meaning of criminal
law concepts; secondly, adequately reect the behavior model of
actors of the norm; thirdly, consistently set out in the normative text;
fourthly, have the maximum clarity, distinctness, and consistency.
4. Discussion
Following the guidelines of the legislative design technique, the
provisions of legislative textual criticism, and the position of German
researchers of criminal law-making (Hernández, 2019), the following can
be noted:
• rstly, there are no denitive norms on complicity in the institutions
of complicity in the studied criminal codes, which excludes the
possibility of clearly expressing the meaning of this concept and
reecting the signs of the existing criminal law phenomenon known
as complicity in a crime.
• secondly, there is no uniform differentiation of accomplices into
types in the legislation. The Criminal Codes of Germany, the Republic
of Bulgaria, and Japan recognize the perpetrator, instigator, and
accessory as accomplices; the Criminal Codes of France and Spain
– the perpetrator and other accomplices; the Criminal Code of the
Netherlands – the main participants and accomplices; the Criminal
Code of the Republic of Poland – the perpetrators, organizers,
instigators, and accomplices. The Criminal Code of the Republic of
Iran recognizes accessories and three categories of accomplices; the
Criminal Code of China singles out the main criminal as accessories,
which includes the organizer, the leader of the criminal group,
the person playing the main role in a joint crime, instigator, and
accomplice. Accomplices in the criminal laws of the US states
are the person guilty of a crime, as well as another person (New
York), an accomplice of another and a person guilty of incitement
(Pennsylvania).
The absence of the term’s “perpetrator”, “instigator”, and “accomplice”
in several criminal codes of states reduces the quality of legislative texts.
However, the legislative technique obliges lawmakers to fully use legal
terminology, since, with the help of the corresponding term, the concept is
xed as a legal category, which is later used in theory and practice.
• thirdly, prescriptions on complicity in the codes of states for
the most part do not contain a direct indication of the form of
the guilt of persons committing a crime with complicity and the
subjective side of the crime, as the legislators imply that complicity
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Institution of Complicity in a Crime: Comparative-Legal Interpretation
is committed with intent. Along with this approach, the criminal
codes of some states contain provisions recognizing the possibility
of complicity with an unintentional form of guilt (the Criminal Code
of the Republic of Poland) and complicity through negligence (the
Criminal Code of Denmark).
• fourthly, German and American legislation contains specic
provisions on liability for attempted complicity. Thus, the Criminal
Code of the Federal Republic of Germany distinguishes four types
of attempted complicity: 1) an attempt to persuade another person
to commit a crime; 2) an attempt to incite to commit a crime; 3)
expression of readiness to commit a crime; 4) acceptance of a
proposal to commit a criminal offense. The legislator criminalizes
attempted incitement and attempted execution by highlighting
these types of assassination. When an attempt is made to persuade
or incite another person to commit a crime, an attempt at incitement
takes place. Expression of readiness to commit a crime or acceptance
of an offer to commit a criminal offense is punished for attempted
execution.
In addition to recognizing the possibility of attempted complicity, the
German legislator formulated a rule on the voluntary refusal of attempted
complicity. The law has identied three categories of persons who can
be recognized as voluntarily renouncing attempted complicity (Vaughn,
2020). However, the law establishes the punishment of a person for an
unnished crime, if the person has not made voluntary and persistent
efforts to prevent the crime. The Criminal Code of the Republic of Poland
also contains a provision based on which a person can be prosecuted for
attempted incitement or aiding if they tried to commit a criminal act. If
such an attempt was not carried out, then extraordinary mitigation of
punishment is applied to the person or the punishment is not imposed at
all;
• fthly, legislators formulate instructions on the inuence of the
personal qualities of an accomplice on the exclusion, reduction,
or increase of the punishment (the Criminal Codes of the Federal
Republic of Germany, Denmark, the Republic of Bulgaria, the
Republic of Poland, Japan, and others). Personal qualities are
considered only concerning the owner of these qualities. However,
individual national codes, for example, Art. 65 of the Criminal Code
of Japan, allow spreading the inuence of personal qualities on
the amount of punishment of accomplices who do not possess the
specied qualities.
• sixthly, several codes (the Criminal Codes of Poland, Bulgaria,
and Denmark) contain instructions on the voluntary refusal of
accomplices to a crime. Based on the law, an accomplice is not
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subject to a penalty when committing such anti-criminal actions as
refusing to continue participating in the commission of a crime and
preventing the occurrence of a criminal result. At the same time,
the Danish and Polish legislators address the prescription to all
accomplices, the Bulgarian – to the instigator and accomplice.
• seventhly, the considered institutions of complicity contained in
the criminal codes do not prescribe the forms of group commission
of a crime. Criminal conspiracy orders are only available in the
Pennsylvania Criminal Code.
• eighthly, the legislation lacks uniformity in regulating the
punishability of the actions of accomplices. The German legislator
prescribes that each accomplice should be charged with special
personal characteristics when imposing punishment. The same
penalty is imposed on the perpetrator and other accomplices
following the Criminal Codes of France and Denmark. The
institution of the complicity of the Criminal Code of Spain does not
contain normative prescriptions on the punishment of the actions
of accomplices. According to the Criminal Code of the Republic of
Bulgaria, punishment is imposed taking into account the nature and
degree of everyone’s participation in achieving a criminal result.
The Polish legislator obliges the court to punish within the limits of
intent and unintentional fault of the accomplices of a criminal act
(Aizpurua et al., 2020). The Criminal Code of Japan provides for
equal liability of the perpetrator and the instigator; the punishment
for the accomplice is lighter than for the perpetrator. The law of
the Republic of Iran considers the commission of a crime by two or
more persons to be an aggravating circumstance. Each perpetrator
is given an equal amount of punishment. Along with punishment,
an accomplice may be subject to disciplinary measures, and they are
held accountable even if the perpetrator is not subject to criminal
liability by virtue of the law. The Criminal Code of China contains
privileged prescriptions providing for the imposition of punishment
on an accomplice, in contrast to the main criminals (Evans et al.,
2021).
An analysis of the criminal law norms of the codes of some states, taking
into account the requirements of legislative technology, allows noting that
legislators, in the presence of fundamental theoretical developments in
the technique of constructing norms, do not fully embody them in laws.
This is especially evident in the absence of denitions and uniform terms,
the formulation of titles, and the compositional-graphic construction of
the normative text (Ramakers et al., 2020). At the same time, theorists of
the German legislative technique believe that the structure of a normative
text is determined by its content and conceptual denitions. Indeed, the
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Institution of Complicity in a Crime: Comparative-Legal Interpretation
norms – denitions make it possible to clarify the complexity of normative
prescriptions governing criminal law relations. Legislative denitions
should be considered as the fundamental core of the set of legal norms that
form the criminal law institution of complicity in a crime.
Legislative technicians guide rule-makers along the path of eliminating
long and complex legal structures (Durrant, 2020). As a general rule, they
should be divided into separate short sentences, since such a construction
greatly facilitates the perception of the normative text. Despite the existing
rules, elongated structures are found in the legislative texts of the Criminal
Codes of France, Denmark, Australia, Iran, and others.
The goal of the law’s creators should be clear to everyone; the
accessibility and clarity of the text are assessed according to the following
criteria: simplicity, brevity, clarity, systematicity, and consistency, as
well as clarity, distinctness, accuracy, certainty, optimal capacity, and
compactness of legislative formulations. However, these criteria are not
always implemented in criminal and penal codes. In particular, the brevity
and clarity of the prescriptions are absent in the Criminal Codes of France,
Bulgaria, and Iran; the systematic nature of the Criminal Codes of the
Netherlands and Denmark is violated; the sequence of the presentation
of regulatory prescriptions in the Criminal Code of Denmark is not always
observed; the titles of the paragraphs do not correspond to the text of the
criminal law orders in the Criminal Code of Pennsylvania.
Conclusion
Based on the results of the study, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
– the inclusion of rules on complicity in other criminal law institutions
is an unjustied construction technique.
– the lack of a title complex in the institution of complicity reduces the
quality level of this institution.
– the presence of denitive norms in the institution of complicity
signicantly improves its quality.
– differentiation of partners in crime should not be excessive and
arbitrary.
– the norms on attempted complicity in a crime increase the preventive
potential of criminal legislation.
Legislative denitions should be considered as the fundamental core of
the set of legal norms that form the criminal law institution of complicity
in a crime.
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Also, the content of criminal law prescriptions should: rstly, accurately
express the meaning of criminal law concepts; secondly, adequately reect
the behavior model of actors of the norm; thirdly, be consistently stated in
the normative text; fourthly, have the maximum clarity, distinctness, and
consistency.
Acknowledgment
The publication was prepared as part of the state assignment for 2020.
“Transformation of private and public law in the context of the evolving
personality, society, and state” (No. 0851-2020-0033).
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