© The Authors, 2026, Published by the Universidad del Zulia*Corresponding author: fveliz@uagraria.edu.ec
Keywords:
Static and dynamic levels
Recovery
Water quality
Hydrodynamic and hydrochemical levels of groundwater in perennial crops of the Vinces
canton, Los Ríos, Ecuador
Niveles hidrodinámicos e hidroquímicos de aguas subterráneas en cultivos perennes del cantón
Vinces, Los Ríos, Ecuador
Níveis hidrodinâmicos e hidroquímicos das águas subterrâneas de culturas perenes no cantão de
Vinces, Los Ríos, Equador
Freddy Veliz Piguave*
Kleber Calle Romero
Diego Maruri Moran
Ivan Navarro Veliz
Fanny Rodríguez Jarama
Maritza Veliz Piguave
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2026, 43(1): e264307
ISSN 2477-9407
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v43.n1.VII
Crop production
Associate editor: Dr. Jorge Vilchez-Perozo
University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Universidad Agraria del Ecuador, Guayaquil, Ecuador.
Dirección postal institucional 090104.
Received: 15-10-2025
Accepted: 29-12-2025
Published: 18-01-2025
Abstract
The static and dynamic levels, as well as the quality of
groundwater sources used for agricultural production, represent an
important factor in understanding the characteristics of the use of
wells for this activity and the inuence on the decline in static levels
during the dry season. The objective of this research was to determine
the behavior of the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical levels of
groundwater used in plantain, banana, and cocoa production to
improve water resource utilization in the Clariza parish of the Vinces
canton, Ecuador. Data were collected from 10 production units in
the area. For the dynamic levels, a constant-rate pumping test was
performed. For water quality characteristics, in-situ tests for pH,
electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS) were
performed, and no values were recorded that would restrict their
use for agricultural activities. The declines in dynamic levels were
constant and progressive during the dry season due to the irrational
use of water through pumping systems. Dynamic levels measured
using the pumping test determined maximum drawdowns between
6 and 8 m in depth; however, well recovery showed constant rising
levels, indicating aquifer recharge.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2026, 43(1): e264307 January-March ISSN 2477-9409.
2-7 |
Resumen
Los niveles estáticos, dinámicos y calidad de agua de fuentes
subterráneas empleados para la producción agrícola representan
un factor importante para conocer las características de uso de los
pozos para esta actividad y la inuencia sobre el descenso de los
niveles estáticos durante los meses de época seca. El objetivo de
esta investigación fue determinar el comportamiento de los niveles
hidrodinámicos e hidro químicos de aguas subterráneas usadas en
la producción de cultivos de plátano, banano y cacao, para mejorar
el aprovechamiento del recurso agua en la parroquia Clariza del
cantón Vinces, Ecuador. Se realizó un levantamiento de información
en 10 unidades productivas de la zona. Para los niveles dinámicos
se realizó una prueba de bombeo a caudal constante. Para las
características de calidad de agua se hicieron pruebas in situ de pH,
conductividad eléctrica (CE) y sólidos totales disueltos (STD) no
registrándose valores que restrinjan su uso para actividades agrícolas.
Los descensos de niveles estáticos fueron constantes y progresivos
en la época seca por el uso irracional del agua mediante los sistemas
de bombeo. Los niveles dinámicos mediante la prueba de bombeo
determinaron niveles máximos de descensos entre 6 y 8 m de
profundidad, sin embargo, la recuperación de pozos tuvo ascensos
constantes, identicando recarga del acuífero.
Palabras clave: niveles estáticos y dinámicos, recuperación, calidad
de agua.
Resumo
Os níveis estáticos e dinâmicos e a qualidade das fontes de água
subterrânea utilizadas para a produção agrícola representam um fator
importante para a compreensão das características do uso de poços
para esta atividade e a inuência no declínio dos níveis estáticos
durante a estação seca. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi determinar o
comportamento dos níveis hidrodinâmicos e hidroquímicos das
águas subterrâneas utilizadas na produção de banana-da-terra,
banana-da-terra e cacau, a m de melhorar a utilização dos recursos
hídricos na paróquia de Clariza, no cantão de Vinces, Equador. Os
dados foram coletados em 10 unidades de produção da área. Para
os níveis dinâmicos, foi realizado um teste de bombeamento de
uxo constante até que um nível de rebaixamento contínuo. Para
as características de qualidade da água, foram realizados testes in
situ de pH, condutividade elétrica (CE) e sólidos dissolvidos totais
(SDT), e não foram registrados valores que restrinjam seu uso para
atividades agrícolas. As quedas dos níveis estáticos foram constantes
e progressivas durante a estação seca, devido ao uso irracional de água
por meio de sistemas de bombeamento. Os níveis dinâmicos medidos
por meio do teste de bombeamento determinaram quedas máximas
entre 6 e 8 m de profundidade; no entanto, a recuperação dos poços
apresentou aumentos constantes, indicando recarga do aquífero.
Palavras-chave: níveis estáticos e dinâmicos, recuperação, qualidade
da água.
Introduction
The importance of water resources is recognized worldwide, and
they are increasingly scarce. Water, as a natural resource, is essential
for the agricultural and livestock development of countries (Salazar
& Alma, 2018). In developing countries such as Ecuador, water
resources are used in a greater proportion for agricultural irrigation
and play an essential role in crop production and food security
(Hoogesteger & Wester, 2018).
In Ecuador, the agricultural sector uses more than two-thirds
of the water extracted from rivers, lakes, and aquifers. Agriculture
is not only the sector that consumes the most water in terms of
volume; it also consumes more than other uses. The irrational use
of water has accelerated, leading to a drastic reduction in aquifer
levels at the regional and global levels (Noori et al., 2023 springs,
and qanats, from 2002 to 2017, here we show a signicant decline
of around −3.8 mm.year
-1
in the nationwide groundwater recharge.
This decline is primarily attributed to unsustainable water and
environmental resources management, exacerbated by decadal
changes in climatic conditions. However, it is important to note that
the former’s contribution outweighs the latter. Our results show the
average annual amount of nationwide groundwater recharge (i.e.,
~40 mm.year
-1
; Jasechko et al., 2024). As a result, aquifers for use
in intensive agriculture could be overused; their extraction rate could
have exceeded the recharge rate due to the increase in crop areas
without proper management and the adoption of good practices to
save water resources (Ríos et al., 2020; Noori et al., 2023 springs,
and qanats, from 2002 to 2017, here we show a signicant decline of
around −3.8 mm.year
-1
in the nationwide groundwater recharge.
This decline is primarily attributed to unsustainable water and
environmental resources management, exacerbated by decadal
changes in climatic conditions. However, it is important to note that
the former’s contribution outweighs the latter. Our results show the
average annual amount of nationwide groundwater recharge (i.e., ~40
mm.year
-1
). On the other hand, studies of the declines of levels have
been evidenced at a global level, in America, and in Colombia by
Armenta and Gallardo (2016); Mexico, by Santos et al. (2019) and
Hernández (2020), and globally in countries (USA, Mexico, Chile,
South Africa, Afghanistan, Asia, Thailand, China, Iran, Saudi Arabia,
and Spain) reported by Jasechko et al. (2024).
The static level of deep wells is the vertical distance from the
ground to the level at which the water is located. In general, producers
do not have the knowledge of what the hydrodynamic characteristics
of their wells are for agricultural use (Dipardo et al., 2021). Likewise,
they are unaware of the hydrochemical characteristics that can limit
production (Dipardo et al., 2021; Mancilla et al., 2021).
In this sense, the General Directorate of Water (2017) is
responsible for diagnosing the quality of groundwater, indicating
sources of contamination, and establishing restriction zones to ensure
the sustainable management of water resources.
In the Province of Los Ríos, Ecuador, the scarcity of data
on piezometric studies and volume of water extracted generates
uncertainty at the local level that can accurately demonstrate the
reduction of static levels of groundwater resources caused by the
indiscriminate use of water and the increase in areas of perennial
cycle crops such as banana from 61,937 ha in 2016 to 62,540 ha
in 2022 and cocoa from 96,200 ha in 2016 to 120,187 ha in 2022,
as detailed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG,
Ecuador, 2023). In this context, the objective of this research was
to determine the behavior of the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical
levels of groundwater used in the production of plantain, banana, and
cocoa crops in the Clariza parish of the Vinces canton, Ecuador.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Veliz et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2026, 43(1): e264307
3-7 |
On the other hand, the volume of discharge was estimated in m
3
per ha; the measurements were made by taking the pressure at the
beginning and at the end of the irrigation module (rst and last Griven
sprinkler, LM995B model, Venezuela, respectively), the discharge
level was determined by applying formulas to calculate the rainfall
intensity based on its ow and spacing, this variable was determined
at the beginning and last month of the evaluation of static levels.
Volume of irrigated area = Volume * number of modules in
operation.
Volume of irrigated area m
3
.day
-1
= Volume * number of working
hours of the pumping equipment.
Results and discussion
Seven producers presented crop areas with a range of 3 to 6.5 ha
of plantain, banana, and cocoa production, with deep wells drilled in
an artisanal way with a depth of 30 to 60 m and diameters ranging
from 3 to 6 inches, they had sprinkler irrigation systems and pumping
systems at ow and/or pressure from 6 to 13 HP with 3600 rpm. On the
other hand, three producers had a larger area (30 to 100 ha of banana).
These producers also had deep wells with industrial construction,
approximately 70 to 100 m deep and 12 inches in diameter, with
sprinkler irrigation systems, in addition to pressure pumping systems
with a range of 60 to 100 HP with 1,800 to 2,000 rpm, clay loam to
silty clay loam soils, with pH between 6.6 and 7.3; EC less than 1
dS.m
-1;
and soils with a range of 3 to 3.6 % in organic matter.
The groundwater wells used by farmers in the Clariza sector
of the Vinces canton are mainly destined for the agricultural use of
perennial crops in the dry season months (late May to December).
However, in the evaluation period, the dry season was extended until
mid-January. In this context, producers with less than 6.6 ha have
wells with a range of 30 to 60 m in depth and diameters of 4 to 6
inches, with a production area of less than 7 ha. These deep wells
are drilled using rotary drilling, pressure-ow pumping systems, and
sprinkler irrigation system infrastructure.
The other producers had 30 or more ha, with wells of 60 to 100
m deep; 12 inch diameter with deep wells drilled with rotary drilling,
with pressure discharge systems and sprinkler irrigation systems to
meet the water needs of each crop.
The use of water for agricultural activities is maintained in
the dry season with the use of water from deep wells of artisanal
construction. In this regard, Machado (2023) indicated that a better
understanding of how aquifer systems work should be promoted
among those involved in groundwater. Loor et al. (2019) reported
that cultivation practices have an inuence on groundwater, since in
areas of high agricultural activity, contamination can be generated
with a deterioration of aquifers.
Hydrodynamic variables of groundwater
Figure 1 shows the static level (m) data of the productive units of
the Clariza sector from June 2022 to January 2023, showing an initial
measurement of 1.29 m in June and reaching a 5.98 m decline by the
nal evaluation in January. Large producers had similar constant and
progressive declines in water levels in a range from 1.55 m to 5.98 m
for agricultural irrigation use.
On the other hand, Figure 2 shows the map of isobaths in the
evaluation area, showing constant declines in water tables in the
research period, with values of less than 6 m for small and large
producers.
Materials and methods
Study area
The research work was carried out in the Clariza parish, in the
Vinces canton, Los Ríos province, located between coordinates 1°33’
00’’ S and 79° 44’ 00’’ W, at 39 m.a.s.l., with an average temperature
of 25 ºC and average annual rainfall of 1453 mm (National Institute
of Meteorology and Hydrology [INAMHI], 2023). The area presented
clay-loam soils, and the planting of perennial crops such as plantain,
banana, and cocoa.
In reference to the rainfall data of the National Institute of
Meteorology and Hydrology (INAMHI), an average rainfall of 1,453
mm was recorded in the area of the Vinces canton from 2005 to 2015,
however, 91 % of the rainfall was concentrated in the rainy season
(January to May) and the remaining 9 % in the dry season (June to
December).
Research method
The research method was based on a descriptive design, where
producers of the plantain, banana or cocoa items were selected, in
production and with irrigation, leaving a total of 10 producers,
presenting the productive units the following areas: four with 3
ha; two with 3.5 ha; one with 6.5 ha, one with 30 ha; one with 70
ha and the last with 100 ha. Baseline information was collected,
such as cultivated species, crop area, type of irrigation, type of
well construction, georeferencing, diameter, depth, and coverage
of the well, pumping system, and pump characteristics (capacity,
type of pump, motor rpm). In addition, the hydrodynamic (static
level, dynamic level) and hydrochemical variables (pH, electrical
conductivity EC, total dissolved solids TDS) of groundwater used
in the production of agricultural crops in the dry season (June
to December) were evaluated; however, this drought period was
extended until mid-January due to the absence of rainfall in the
evaluation area.
Data collection for hydrodynamic monitoring
In the selected wells, the declines in the level of water were
recorded. The static level reading was made by introducing a TLC
meter (Temperature, Level, and Conductivity), Solinst brand, model
107, United States of America, into the well (located next to the
pumping head) until the acoustic signal indicating the water level was
obtained. This procedure was performed monthly while the pumping
group was not in operation. For the dynamic level, the pumping test
was started and the pump was energized at constant ow or pressure,
followed by the reading of times (min), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15,
20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100, 120, 160 and 200.
Pumping. Time (min): Time elapsed since the start of the pumping
test.
Drawdown (m): Dierence between the dynamic level and static
level.
Water level (m): Position occupied by groundwater and/or the
time that elapses to recover the well.
After pumping, the motor (pumping head) was immediately
turned o, and the measurement and time of the recovery levels
of the well were taken. Hydrochemical evaluation was performed
in situ, obtaining the water sample after one hour of pumping;
three subsamples of 1 L of water were collected. The Tester brand
equipment, HANNA HI 98130 model, Colombia, was used, taking
the readings on a monthly basis, creating a record of the variables of
pH, EC, and TDS in situ.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2026, 43(1): e264307 January-March ISSN 2477-9409.
4-7 |
Figure 1. Static groundwater levels (m) of the Vinces canton.
other hand, it was followed by similar drawdown patterns, showing
a stabilization in the curve from minute 150 to minute 240 with a
constant dynamic level of 5.8 m in depth, stabilizing the curve and
culminating the pumping test.
In the case of production unit 6, pumping began at a constant
discharge ow (8 L.s
-1
). It was observed that, at min 0, the level was
at 3.69 m, at the time of starting the test, the level declined to 7.45
m at min 1, leading to drawdowns until min 120, which registers its
maximum drawdown of 8.21 m, showing a recovery of the well in
the measurement of min 150, reaching 8.20 m, following drawdowns
of similar shape and showing a stabilization in the curve from min
150 to min 300 with a constant dynamic level of 8.20 m in depth,
stabilizing the curve and culminating the pumping test.
In production unit 8, pumping began at a constant discharge ow
(10 L.s
-1
) and it was observed that, at min 0 the level was at 3.43 m,
at the time of starting the test, the level fell to 6.6 m at min 1, leading
to constant drawdowns until min 50 when it registered the maximum
drawdown of 7.54 m, showing a recovery of the aquifer at minute 60,
reaching 6.52 m and drawdowns to 7.64 m; reecting a stabilization
in the curve from min 360 to min 420, with a constant dynamic level
of 7.4 m in depth, stabilizing the curve, ending the pumping test.
Figure 4 shows the behavior of drawdown vs. time, showing in
the graph that production unit 4 had drawdowns with respect to the
static level of 2.34 m in depth at 40 min, and it was stabilized at 180
min with 2.11 m. Production unit 6 showed consecutive drawdowns
of 4.52 m at 120 min and was stabilized at 150 min. Productive unit
8 presented consecutive drawdowns until minute 50 with 4.11 m;
however, the drawdown was reduced as a result of aquifer recharge.
In addition to the extraction of water from the well at constant ow,
the drawdowns increased to 300 min with 4.21 m and stabilized at
360 min of the pumping test.
In Figure 5, the recovery of the wells is observed, being one of
the main hydraulic characteristics to identify if the well is receiving
recharge from the aquifer; therefore, it is evident that the wells
for agricultural use had a progressive and constant recovery with
a recharge duration of 60 to 90 min in the wells of the evaluated
producers.
JUNE
JANUARY
Figure 2. Map of isobaths (m) of the groundwater level in the
Vinces canton.
The evaluation of the static levels of wells used for agricultural
production showed levels of decline in the dry season up to 5.98 m
in depth for small and large producers. The results of this evaluation
agree with Santos et al. (2019) who indicate that the decline in
static levels occurs due to various factors such as the extraction of
water through pressure and ow pumping systems for agricultural
irrigation, declines in soil moisture, or absorption by the root area
of the crop; however, it diers from the ndings of Armenta and
Gallardo (2016) who report declines in static levels in ranges of 17
to 21 m in depth, and Hernández et al. (2020) with more than 50 m
in depth, descending due to the dierent agricultural activities during
the months that the dry season lasts.
On the other hand, Figure 3 details the drawdown in dynamic
levels recorded during the pumping tests of three producers in the
Clariza area carried out on August 25, 27, and 30 at constant ow;
the graph details the behavior of the wells. For production unit 4,
pumping began at a constant discharge ow (6 L.s
-1
), observing
that, at minute 0, the level was at 3.69 m, at the time of starting the
pumping test, the level dropped to 5.3 m at min 1, leading to constant
drawdowns until minute 40, where a signicant level of 6.03 m was
recorded, showing a recovery at minute 50, reaching 5.6 m. On the
Figure 3. Dynamic levels of groundwater wells in the Vinces
canton.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Veliz et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2026, 43(1): e264307
5-7 |
Figure 5. Recovery of groundwater wells in the Vinces canton.
The evaluation of dynamic levels, drawdown and recovery by
pumping test using the TLC meter, was carried out in 2 wells of small
producers and 1 well of a large producer, the initial dynamic level
of the small producers was 3.69 m, the declines were constant and
progressive, reaching a constant dynamic level at 5.80 m and 8.20 m in
depth, stopping the pumping test at 240 min and 300 min respectively
and with a drawdown level of 2.11 m and 4.51 m respectively.
In production unit 10, the initial level was 3.43 m, the dynamic
level reached up to 7.40 m at 420 min and a level of drawdown of 3.97
m, and the recovery of the three wells for agricultural production had
constant and progressive rising levels, as a characteristic that the wells
are receiving aquifer recharge between 60 and 90 min after the pumping
test is completed. Therefore, it diers from the report by Gómez (2020),
where the declines reached depths of 70 m and 140 m, a drawdown of 40
m; however, the recovery ranged between 60 and 360 min with ows of
30 to 60 L.s
-1
. On the other hand, Aguirre et al. (2022) report drawdowns
in dynamic levels, ranging from 5 m to 98 m during pumping tests in the
Ñuble River aquifer in the central valley of Chile.
Hydrochemical variables of groundwater
Figure 6 shows the water pH data of small and large producers in
the Clariza sector from June 2022 to January 2023, which details that
the productive units with 3 to 6.5 ha presented a water pH that varies
between 6.91 ± 0.13 pH. However, large producers had a similar range
of 6.93 ± 0.23 pH in the months evaluated. Therefore, they do not have
any degree of restriction for agricultural use, being the appropriate
range for irrigation water, whose ranges are specied between 6 to 9
pH, according to the General Directorate of Water (2017).
The values of electrical conductivity of the water in the months
evaluated are detailed in Figure 7. Producers with 3 to 6.5 ha had an
electrical conductivity (mmhos.cm
-1
) of water that ranged from 0.78
± 0.22 mmhos.cm
-1
. However, large producers had a higher range of
1.74 ± 0.68 mmhos.cm
-1
in the months evaluated. These values do not
have any degree of restriction on agricultural use, according to the
data presented by the General Directorate of Water (2017), detailing
that the chemical parameters of water for agricultural irrigation (EC)
are in optimal ranges from 0.7 to 3.0 mmhos.cm
-1
.
Figure 4. Drawdown of groundwater wells in the Vinces canton.
Figure 6. pH of irrigation water, Vinces canton.
Figure 7. Electrical conductivity of irrigation water, Vinces
canton.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2026, 43(1): e264307 January-March ISSN 2477-9409.
6-7 |
Figure 8 shows the TDS values in the water; productive units of less
than 7 ha reected values in a range of 0.45 ± 0.13 ppt TDS. However,
for productive units with 30 or more ha, the value was higher with 0.86
± 0.30 ppt of TDS in the months evaluated, so they do not have any
degree of restriction for agricultural use. The General Directorate of
Water (2017) reports TDS values ranging from 0.10 ppt to 2 ppt.
Water quality values recorded in the wells for the variables pH, EC,
and TDS in small producers ranged from 6.63 to 7.16 for pH, 0.43
to 1.42 mmhos.cm
-1
for EC, and 0.20 to 0.71 ppt for TDS. However,
large producers showed a slight increase in the evaluated variables,
with pH values from 6.55 to 7.40, EC from 0.80 to 2.59 mmhos.cm
-1
,
and TDS from 0.40 to 0.71 ppt. These values present no restrictions for
agricultural use according to the General Directorate of Water (2017).
Table 1 details the estimation of the volume of water for irrigation
of small producers, where they have a range of 394 m
3
to 2,940 m
3
of
irrigation per day; however, for large producers, the volume of water
discharge for agricultural irrigation was 17,500 to 73,040 m
3
of water
per day. On the other hand, in the dry season, the application volumes
ranged from 9,846 m
3
to 115,050 m
3
in small producers, and in large
producers, 2,625,000 m
3
to 11,102,080 m
3
to meet the water needs of
the aforementioned crops.
Table 1. Estimation of the volume of irrigated water in the dry
season, Vinces canton.
Producer
Irrigated
area (ha)
Volume of irrigated
water (m
3
) per day
Total volume of irrigated
water (m
3
) in the dry
season
Producer 1 3 2,940 73,500
Producer 2 3 4,602 115,050
Producer 3 3 543 13,575
Producer 4 3 959 23,975
Producer 5 3.5 - -
Producer 6 3.5 394 9,846
Producer 7 6.5 27,200 680,000
Producer 8 30 17,500 2,625,000
Producer 9 70 73,040 11,102,080
Producer 10 100 36,680 5,758,760
Prepared by the authors.
Figure 8. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the irrigation water of
the Vinces canton.
Conclusions
The declines in static levels were constant and progressive in
the dry season due to the irrational use of water through pumping
systems for agricultural use. The dynamic levels through the pumping
test determined maximum drawdowns between 6 to 8 m in depth;
however, the recovery of wells had constant rising levels, identifying
aquifer recharge.
Recommendations
Producers, knowing the behavior of the hydrodynamic and
hydrochemical levels of groundwater used in the production of
perennial crops, should improve the use of water resources in
the Vinces canton, Ecuador. Access to adequate groundwater and
sustainable management of water resources are essential to ensure
food security and agricultural development.
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