© The Authors, 2025, Published by the Universidad del Zulia*Corresponding author: 317230682@qq.com
Keywords:
Labor shortages
Production eciency
Agronomic traits
Direct seeding cultivation
Agricultural innovation
Review
The development status of rice iron-coated wet direct seeding technology in Japan
El estado de desarrollo de la tecnología de siembra directa en agua con semillas de arroz recubiertas
de hierro en Japón
O status de desenvolvimento da tecnologia de semeadura direta em água com sementes de arroz
revestidas com ferro no Japão
An Hao
He Bing*
Li Chao
Wang Xiaohang
Lang Hong
Wang Shuai
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e244212
ISSN 2477-9407
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v42.n1.XII
Crop production
Associate editor: Dr. Jorge Vilchez-Perozo
University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
College of Agriculture, Jilin Agricultural Science and
Technology University, Jilin City, Jilin Province, China,
132101
Received: 09-12-2024
Accepted: 15-01-2025
Published: 05-02-2025
Abstract
This review examines the development and potential of iron-
coated wet direct seeding technology in Japanese rice cultivation,
emphasizing its role in mitigating labor shortages and enhancing the
sector’s competitiveness. The technology, which has been rapidly
adopted, improves seedling emergence, reduces seed drifting,
and minimizes damage from birds and rodents by increasing
seed weight and hardness. Comprising cost-eective materials
such as iron powder and calcium sulfate, the coating process is
both straightforward and economical. While some studies report
a modest 5 % reduction in yield relative to transplanting, others
suggest comparable or even improved yields. The technology oers
signicant advantages in reducing labor input, lowering production
costs, and improving seedling establishment, positioning it as
a promising solution not only for Japan but also for other rice-
producing regions facing similar challenges.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254212 January-March. ISSN 2477-9409.
2-6 |
Resumen
Esta revisión examina de manera crítica el desarrollo y el potencial
de la tecnología de siembra directa húmeda con recubrimiento
de hierro en el cultivo de arroz en Japón, destacando su papel en
la mitigación de la escasez de mano de obra y en el fortalecimiento
de la competitividad del sector. La tecnología, que ha sido adoptada
rápidamente, mejora la emergencia de las plántulas, reduce el
desplazamiento de las semillas y minimiza los daños causados por aves
y roedores al aumentar el peso y la dureza de las semillas. Compuesta
por materiales rentables como polvo de hierro y sulfato de calcio, el
proceso de recubrimiento es sencillo y económico. Aunque algunos
estudios reportan una reducción modesta del 5 % en el rendimiento en
comparación con el trasplante, otros sugieren rendimientos similares
o incluso superiores. La tecnología ofrece ventajas signicativas
en la reducción del trabajo manual, la disminución de los costos
de producción y la mejora del establecimiento de las plántulas,
posicionándose como una solución prometedora no solo para Japón,
sino también para otras regiones productoras de arroz que enfrentan
desafíos similares.
Palabras clave: escasez de mano de obra, eciencia de producción,
características agronómicas, cultivo de siembra directa, innovación
agrícola.
Resumo
Esta revisão examina criticamente o desenvolvimento e
o potencial da tecnologia de semeadura direta molhada com
revestimento de ferro na cultura de arroz no Japão, enfatizando seu
papel na mitigação da escassez de mão de obra e no aumento da
competitividade do setor. A tecnologia, que foi rapidamente adotada,
melhora a emergência das plântulas, reduz o desvio das sementes e
minimiza os danos causados por aves e roedores, ao aumentar o peso
e a dureza das sementes. Composta por materiais econômicos como
pó de ferro e sulfato de cálcio, o processo de revestimento é simples
e acessível. Embora alguns estudos relatem uma redução modesta de 5 %
no rendimento em comparação com o transplante, outros sugerem
rendimentos semelhantes ou até superiores. A tecnologia oferece
vantagens signicativas na redução do esforço laboral, diminuição
dos custos de produção e melhoria no estabelecimento das plântulas,
posicionando-se como uma solução promissora não apenas para
o Japão, mas também para outras regiões produtoras de arroz que
enfrentam desaos semelhantes.
Palavras-chave: escassez de mão de obra, eciência de produção,
características agronômicas, cultivo de semeadura direta, inovação
agrícola.
Introduction
In recent years, Japan’s agricultural population has been rapidly
declining at an annual rate of 5 %. As of 2015, the proportion of
agricultural workers aged 65 and over had reached a staggering
63 %. The lack of successors are driving many elderly small-scale
farmers in Japan to abandon rice production, worsening the aging
crisis in agriculture (Kim et al., 2023). Conversely, the number of
individuals under 49 engaged in large-scale agricultural production
is on the rise. Similar to the situation in China, land consolidation
and large-scale farming are gradually becoming the mainstream
trend in Japanese agricultural development. Consequently, many
farmlands abandoned by aging small-scale farmers are being taken
over by relatively younger large-scale farm operators. From 2005 to
2010, this polarization of farm sizes accelerated signicantly, with the
number of farms under 5 ha decreasing sharply while the number of
farms over 10 ha continued to rise (Fukumoto et al., 2019). However,
the issue of labor shortage remains unresolved, and labor input per
unit area is still insucient. Additionally, with an inux of Southeast
Asian rice into the Japanese market, domestically produced rice faces
cost disadvantages and declining market competitiveness (He et al.,
2018). Reducing labor input in rice production on a larger scale, while
lowering production costs to enhance the competitiveness of rice
products, has become an urgent task for Japan’s rice industry.
Rice direct seeding technology, which can streamline production
processes, save time and eort, reduce costs, and facilitate large-scale
mechanized operations, has gradually been accepted by rice farmers
and chosen by Japan’s Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
as a signicant technology for nationwide promotion. Particularly,
wet direct seeding technology, due to its advantages over dry direct
seeding such as stable seedling establishment and easier weed control
has seen the most extensive application. However, it still faces issues
like seed drifting and yield reduction caused by bird and rodent
damage. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a new direct seeding
technology that can ensure stable germination rates while addressing
issues caused by birds and rodents.
To address the challenges of direct rice seeding, Japan has
developed and promoted iron-coated wet direct seeding technology.
This method involves coating rice seeds with a mixture of iron powder
and calcium sulfate, which increases seed weight and hardness,
thereby reducing seed drifting and animal predation. It also facilitates
surface seeding, which enhances germination rates by minimizing
damage associated with soil seeding. The objective of this review
is to provide a comprehensive analysis of iron-coated wet direct
seeding technology, examining its development, operational process,
and advantages.
Methods
This review was conducted through a comprehensive literature
search and analysis of published research on iron-coated wet direct
seeding technology in rice cultivation. The primary sources of
information included peer-reviewed journal articles sourced from
academic databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, and Google
Scholar. Additionally, government reports and statistical data on
adoption rates and application areas were gathered from documents
published by Japan’s Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries,
as well as agricultural departments in other countries. Patent
documents, including the original patent for the iron-coating method
led by Yamauchi (2010), provided detailed technical insights into
the process. Furthermore, personal communications with agricultural
scientists and extension specialists who have direct experience with
iron-coated seeding technology were conducted to supplement the
published literature.
Discussion
Promotion and Popularization of Iron-coated Wet Direct
Seeding Technology
The Japan’s Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries
introduce and promote iron-coated wet direct seeding technology in
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Hao et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254212
3-6 |
add the coating mixture to the seeds in small amounts while spraying
water to facilitate adhesion. After all the coating mixture has been
added, let the mixer rotate for an additional 2-3 minutes to ensure
thorough mixing. If necessary, add more dihydrate calcium sulfate to
achieve the desired thickness of the seed coat.
Since dihydrate calcium sulfate generates heat upon contact
with water, immediately spread the coated seeds in a thin layer (not
exceeding 2 cm in thickness, using existing seedling trays if available).
Place the trays in a cool, shaded area to dry thoroughly, which usually
takes 2-3 days. Check the seeds every 6-8 hours for color change and
dryness. If the seeds become too dry, lightly mist them with water to
promote oxidation. The seeds are ready for seeding when over 85 %
have turned a noticeable rust color. For seeds not immediately sown,
continue drying them for long-term storage, which should not exceed
3 months (Yamauchi, 2010; Yamauchi, 2012). Figure 2 shows the
process described.
Figure 2. Operational Process of Iron-Coated Wet Direct Seeding
Technology
Current Issues in Wet Direct Seeding Cultivation Technology
Surface seeding involves seeding directly on the eld surface
after plowing, either with or without a water layer, so that the seeds
do not enter the soil. This method is widely used in rice production in
countries such as the United States and Australia (Masarei et al., 2019;
Frischie et al., 2020). The main issues encountered in production
include: In some wet direct seeding elds, due to hard soil, uneven
eld surfaces, or coarse plowing resulting in large soil clods, the
seeds cannot make contact with the soil (He et al., 2018). This leads
to seed desiccation and death after drainage, or the seeds germinating
but failing to absorb water in a timely manner, resulting in their
death. Maintaining a water layer after wet direct seeding can cause
insucient oxygen for the seeds, leading to poor seedling emergence
(Mei et al., 2017). Draining and then re-irrigating after wet direct
seeding can cause the seeds to shift, leading to seedling gaps near the
inlet and seedling clumping away from the inlet (Jikawa et al., 2013).
Since direct seeding uses rice seeds directly, it is highly susceptible to
bird damage (e.g., sparrows) and rodent damage, resulting in seedling
gaps and reduced yield in the eld (Fenangad & Orge 2015).
Soil seeding involves embedding rice seeds into the soil during wet
direct seeding cultivation. The main issues encountered in production
include: After seeding, the seeds are in the anaerobic reducing layer of
the early 21st century. The earliest paper on this technology in Japan
dates back to 2001, when Kitano et al., investigate the eects of
iron oxide coating on seed germination and seedling establishment
(Kitano et al., 2001). More comprehensive discussions on iron-
coated wet direct seeding technology are later presented in papers by
Yamauchi (2012).
Beginning in 2004, promotional activities for iron-coated direct
seeding technology are launched nationwide, with technical manuals
on the subject being printed and disseminated (Yamauchi, 2017).
From 2008 onwards, empirical trials of the technology are conducted
across Japan (Muraoka et al., 2011). Figure 1 illustrates the adoption
and promotion of iron-coated wet direct seeding technology in Japan.
Starting in 2008, the application area of this technology has shown a
steady increase. Over the course of just eight years, the area expand
signicantly—from 272.4 ha in 2008 to 15,166.5 ha in 2015—
representing approximately 33.6 % of the total direct seeding area.
This rapid growth reects the widespread recognition and acceptance
of the technology among rice farmers engaged in direct seeding
cultivation.
1.5%
2.7%
4.7%
11.8%
19.3%
23.0%
27.6%
33.6%
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Direct seeding area（ha）
Dry direct seeding
Water direct seeding
Iron-coated water direct seeding
Figure 1. Promotion and Application of Iron-Coated Technology
in Japan
Denition of Iron-Coated Wet Direct Seeding Technology
Iron-coated wet direct seeding technology involves coating rice
seeds with a mixture of iron powder and dihydrate calcium sulfate,
which serves as both an oxidation accelerator and an adhesive
(Yamauchi, 2012). These coated seeds are then directly sown on the
soil surface in water. The patent for this technology, titled “Method
for Manufacturing Iron-Coated Rice Seeds,” is led by Yamauchi in
2004. It is published in July 2005 and approved by the Japan Patent
Oce in 2010 (Yamauchi, 2010).
Operational Process of Iron-Coated Wet Direct Seeding
Technology
Select high-germination-rate rice seeds that have been screened.
Soak the seeds in water at a temperature of 15-20 °C for 3-4 days. The
seeds should remain in a non-germinated state after soaking. Although
dry seeds can also be used directly for coating, their germination will
be signicantly delayed compared to soaked seeds. During soaking,
use a seed disinfectant that does not react with either iron powder or
dihydrate calcium sulfate.
Thoroughly mix iron powder and dihydrate calcium sulfate
(gypsum) in a 5:1 weight ratio to prepare the coating mixture. Mix the
seeds and the coating mixture in a 10:3 weight ratio. Place the seeds
in a mixer (if using dry seeds, pre-coat them with an agent that does
not react with iron powder or dihydrate calcium sulfate). Gradually
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254212 January-March. ISSN 2477-9409.
4-6 |
the soil, lacking direct contact with oxygen. As a result, the coleoptile
and the rst leaf of the seedlings are prone to reduction damage,
leading to seedling death and decreased germination rates. In some
elds where soil seeding is practiced, improper operations can lead
to overly deep seeding, resulting in decreased germination rates or
uneven germination (Yamauchi 2017).
Advantages of Iron-Coated Technology
The materials required for coating are inexpensive, consisting of
iron powder and dihydrate calcium sulfate, with optional fungicidal
seed treatment agents. Based on the prices of iron powder at 0.677
USD.kg
-1
and dihydrate calcium sulfate at 0.071 USD.kg
-1
, the
cost of iron coating is approximately 0.024 USD.kg
-1
of rice seed.
With a seeding rate of 150 kg.ha
-1
, the cost of iron coating is about
25.925 USD.ha
-1
. The coating operation is straightforward and can
be performed with just a mixer. The process is quick and easy to
master. Since surface seeding is used, various seeding methods can be
employed, including manual broadcasting, drone broadcasting, and
mechanical seeding (Yamauchi, 2017).
Impact on Seedlings
Iron-coated seeds can be surface sown, which avoids the reduction
damage associated with soil seeding and improves germination rates
(Yamauchi 2017). Iron-coated direct-seeding technology recommends
using soaked seeds for seeding, which signicantly improves
germination rates compared to using dry seeds (Jikawa et al., 2014).
Moreover, soaked seeds show more pronounced advantages in low-
temperature resistance, drought tolerance, and early growth traits
compared to dry seeds (Avramova 2019; Nakao et al., 2020).
However, the seedling emergence rate using Iron-coated
technology in direct-seeding uctuates greatly. Previous studies have
shown that using Japanese varieties as test varieties, the seedling
emergence rate of Iron-coated direct-seeding technology ranges
between 30 % and 89 % (Yamauchi et al., 2024). The reasons are
low temperatures after seeding or deep seeding depth (Yang et
al., 2022), as well as excessive coating amount causing delayed
germination (Tanabe et al., 2013), leading to a decrease in the nal
seedling emergence rate. Additionally, during the coating process,
the exothermic oxidation of the reducing iron powder can lead to a
decrease in seed germination rate (Furuhata and Kurokawa 2022).
However, under the same cultivation and external conditions,
compared to using other coating materials or uncoated seeds, the nal
seedling emergence rate under Iron-coated direct-seeding conditions
does not show a signicant decline (Saito 2017), indicating that
excluding environmental and human factors, Iron-coated direct-
seeding technology has little impact on germination and seedling
emergence.
The phenomenon of oating seeds and seedlings signicantly aects
seedling emergence in direct-seeding and also inuences tillering and
dry matter accumulation in the later growth stages, thus causing yield
reduction (Van & Huynh, 2015). The main reason for oating seeds
and seedlings is the low specic gravity of seeds. The iron coating
increases the seed’s thousand-grain weight, addressing the issue of seed
displacement and clumping caused by water inow in direct-seeded
elds. According to the survey conducted by Jilin Agricultural Science
and Technology College, the 1000-grain weight of iron-coated seeds
increased by an average of 66.9 % compared to uncoated seeds. Iron-
coated technology greatly increases the specic gravity of seeds, with
the specic gravity of iron oxide-coated seed shells ranging between
3.8 and 5.2, fundamentally solving the problem of oating seeds and
seedlings in direct-seeding (Yamauchi et al., 2023).
Impact on Yield and Quality
From 2008 to 2010, the Japan Agricultural Cooperative Association
and the National Agriculture and Food Research Organization jointly
conduct empirical tests of Iron-coated direct-seeding technology
over three consecutive years. Results from 47 experimental plots
across 18 prefectures in Japan show that the seedling count of Iron-
coated direct-seeding technology is 80.3 seedlings.m
-2
, with a yield
approximately 5 % lower compared to conventional transplanting
(Muraoka et al., 2011). In dierent experimental plots, the proportion
of Iron-coated direct-seeding technology achieving yields of 100 %
or more of transplanting yields is 58.3 % in 2008, 44.4 % in 2009,
and 37.5 % in 2010. Some experimental plots that experienced yield
reductions are speculated to be located in higher latitude cold regions,
where low temperatures aected seedling emergence and caused
yield losses. Additionally, the seeding rate for direct-seeding in Japan
is about one-third of that in other country, which also aects the nal
seedling emergence rate and yield to some extent. Compared to yield,
the quality of rice produced by Iron-coated direct-seeding show no
signicant dierence compared to conventional transplanting.
Impact on Bird and Pest Damage
Both wet direct-seeding and dry direct-seeding are signicantly
aected by bird damage, with sparrows, magpies, and ducks being the
main pest birds. Studies by Yamauchi and Furuhata have shown that
Iron-coated technology has a signicant inhibitory eect on sparrows
pecking at rice seeds (Yamauchi 2019; Furuhata et al., 2011), and this
inhibitory eect becomes more pronounced with increased coating
thickness (Tanabe et al., 2013). It also has a certain deterrent eect
on ducks pecking at rice seeds (Yamauchi, 2017). Since Iron-coated
technology recommends using soaked seeds for coating, soaking
agents can be added during soaking to prevent seed-borne diseases,
oering better prevention compared to using dry seeds for seeding.
Additionally, studies by Kumar and Reddy (2021) have shown that
Iron-coated has good preventive eects against rice seedling blight,
bakanae disease, bacterial streak, brown spot, and rice blast.
Application Prospects of Iron-coated Direct Seeding Rice
Technology
In Europe, Australia, and the United States, direct seeding of
rice is highly mechanized (Farooq et al., 2011). wet direct seeding is
already extensively practiced in some Asian countries and is gradually
being adopted in others (Kumar & Ladha, 2011). Similar to Japan,
China also faces the ongoing reduction of rural labor population and
the aging structure of agricultural labor (Du & Li 2023). Therefore,
direct seeding technology for rice, which can reduce labor steps and
lower manpower input, is gradually emerging (Feng et al., 2020).
Large-scale direct seeding rice cultivation has begun in Heilongjiang,
Ningxia, Jiangsu, and other regions (Jiang et al., 2023; Wang et al.,
2024; Yin et al., 2023). In Heilongjiang Province, the direct seeding
rice area in 2017 accounted for approximately 11.7 % of the total rice
planting area, nearly 470,000 ha. In Ningxia, the dry direct seeding
rice area in 2021 accounted for about 9.7 % of the rice planting area.
In Jiangsu Province, the direct seeding rice area in 2022 accounted
for more than one-quarter of the total rice planting area, reaching
567,000 ha (Zhang et al., 2024).
For wet direct seeding, the instability of seedling emergence
caused by bird and rodent damage and oating seeds signicantly
aects rice yield formation, which is one of the main issues hindering
the application and promotion of wet direct seeding technology. This
is due to the staggered seeding period of wet direct seeding with other
crops and inadequate eld preparation. Iron-coated direct seeding
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Hao et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254212
5-6 |
technology can eectively solve these problems by increasing
the specic gravity and hardness of seeds. Moreover, the coating
materials used are inexpensive, the process is simple, and it has no
adverse environmental impacts.
In 2015, Italy and Spain collectively accounted for approximately
75 % of the total rice-growing area, which was around half a million
ha (Kraehmer & Vidotto 2017). The practice of direct seeding in
saturated soil has become widely adopted in southern Brazil, Chile,
Venezuela, Cuba, various Caribbean nations, and specic regions of
Colombia (Muthuramu & Ragavan 2021). Particularly in Venezuela,
the use of pre-germinated systems for wet direct seeding dominates
rice cultivation (Singh et al., 2017). This provides a strong foundation
for promoting the application of iron-coated seeding technology in
wet direct seeding. With the continuous advancement in breeding
varieties suitable for direct seeding cultivation in dierent rice
production areas, Iron-coated direct seeding technology, as a
technique that can signicantly improve seedling emergence rates and
ensure yield, shows broad application prospects. The popularization
of this technology will undoubtedly bring new breakthroughs and
opportunities to the rice planting industry.
Conclusions
Iron-coated wet direct seeding technology provides several
advantages over traditional wet direct seeding methods, including
increased seed weight and hardness, which help mitigate issues like
seed drifting and damage from birds and rodents. These benets
contribute to more stable seedling establishment and potentially
higher yields. While some studies have reported yield reductions of
around 5% compared to conventional transplanting, the technology
holds the potential for yield parity or even improvement with further
renement and adaptation to local conditions. The cost-eectiveness
and simplicity of the coating process make this technology accessible
to a wide range of farmers, facilitating its broader adoption. Beyond
Japan, the technology shows great promise for other rice-producing
regions, particularly in Asia, Europe, and South America, where
similar challenges exist. With continued development, it could
play a pivotal role in modernizing rice cultivation while reducing
environmental footprints.
Funding source
University Student Science and Technology Innovation
and Entrepreneurship Training Program of Jilin Province
(SJ202411439007)
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