Keywords:

Biotic factors

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

Systematic review

Shrimp culture

Ecosystem approach to semi-intensive cultivation of Penaeus vannamei

Enfoque ecosistémico del cultivo semiintensivo de Penaeus vannamei

Abordagem ecossistêmica para o cultivo semi-intensivo de Penaeus vannamei

Nancy Hernández de Guerrero

Randi Guerrero-Ríos

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40(Supplement): e2340Spl07

ISSN 2477-9407

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v40.supl.07

Environment

Associate editor: Professor Beltrán Briceño

University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Abstract

The ecosystem approach to semi-intensive culture of Penaeus vannamei

is crucial for understanding and managing water quality and planktonic

communities in aquaculture systems. This study focuses on analyzing

the interrelationship between structural and functional elements, using

phytoplankton and zooplankton as bioindicators of water quality and trophic

conditions. The objective is to provide detailed information on the dynamics

of these communities in culture systems, which will improve survival, feed

conversion and shrimp production. A systematic review was carried out using

specic keywords in relevant scientic databases, which made it possible to

collect updated and relevant information on the topic. The discussion focuses

on the importance of phytoplankton as a primary producer, its inuence

on water quality and its role in the diet of shrimp. Recommendations for

maintaining a benecial balance of phytoplankton communities in cropping

systems are detailed. Furthermore, the role of zooplankton as a crucial link

in the food chain is analyzed, providing recommendations on the desirable

amount of zooplankton in semi-intensive farming. Strategies to address

challenges related to primary productivity and food chains in culture ponds

are also discussed. In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of the

ecosystem approach in shrimp farming, underlining the need to understand

and manage planktonic communities to achieve successful and sustainable

aquaculture.

Laboratorio

Ecología,

Facultad

Agronomía,

Universidad

del

Zulia

(LUZ),

Apartado

postal

4011.

Maracaibo, Venezuela.

Laboratorio

Zoología

invertebrados,

Facultad

Experimental

Ciencias,

Universidad

del

Zulia

(LUZ).

Apartado postal 4011. Maracaibo, Venezuela.

Received: 04-10-2023

Accepted: 12-12-2023

Publised: 18-12-2023

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40 (Supplement): e2340Spl07. October-December. ISSN 2477-9407.2-6 |

Resumen

El enfoque ecosistémico del cultivo semiintensivo de Penaeus

vannamei es crucial para comprender y gestionar la calidad del agua y

las comunidades planctónicas en los sistemas acuícolas. Este estudio

se enfoca en analizar la interrelación entre los elementos estructurales

y funcionales, utilizando el toplancton y el zooplancton como

bioindicadores de la calidad del agua y las condiciones trócas. El

objetivo es proporcionar información detallada sobre la dinámica

de estas comunidades en los sistemas de cultivo, lo que permitirá

mejorar la supervivencia, la conversión alimenticia y la producción

de camarones. Se realizó una revisión sistemática utilizando palabras

claves especícas en bases de datos cientícas relevantes, lo que

permitió recopilar información actualizada y crucial sobre el tema. La

discusión se centra en la importancia del toplancton como productor

primario, su inuencia en la calidad del agua y su papel en la dieta

de los camarones. Se detallan las recomendaciones para mantener

un equilibrio benecioso de las comunidades de toplancton en los

sistemas de cultivo. Además, se analiza el papel del zooplancton

como eslabón crucial en la cadena alimentaria, proporcionando

recomendaciones sobre la cantidad deseable de zooplancton en el

cultivo semiintensivo. Se discuten también estrategias para abordar

desafíos relacionados con la productividad primaria y las cadenas

alimenticias en los estanques de cultivo. En conclusión, este estudio

destaca la importancia del enfoque ecosistémico en el cultivo de

camarón, subrayando la necesidad de comprender y gestionar las

comunidades planctónicas para lograr una acuicultura exitosa y

sostenible.

Palabras clave: factores bióticos, toplancton, zooplancton, revisión

sistemática, cultivo de camarón.

Resumo

A abordagem ecossistêmica da cultura semi-intensiva de Penaeus

vannamei é crucial para a compreensão e gestão da qualidade da

água e das comunidades planctônicas em sistemas de aquicultura.

Este estudo tem como foco analisar a inter-relação entre elementos

estruturais e funcionais, utilizando o toplâncton e o zooplâncton

como bioindicadores da qualidade da água e das condições trócas.

O objetivo é fornecer informações detalhadas sobre a dinâmica dessas

comunidades em sistemas de cultivo, o que melhorará a sobrevivência,

a conversão alimentar e a produção de camarões. Foi realizada

uma revisão sistemática utilizando palavras-chave especícas em

bases de dados cientícas relevantes, o que possibilitou coletar

informações atualizadas e relevantes sobre o tema. A discussão

centra-se na importância do toplâncton como produtor primário,

na sua inuência na qualidade da água e no seu papel na dieta do

camarão. São detalhadas recomendações para manter um equilíbrio

benéco das comunidades toplanctônicas nos sistemas de cultivo.

Além disso, é analisado o papel do zooplâncton como elo crucial

na cadeia alimentar, fornecendo recomendações sobre a quantidade

desejável de zooplâncton na agricultura semi-intensiva. Também são

discutidas estratégias para enfrentar os desaos relacionados com a

produtividade primária e as cadeias alimentares em tanques de cultura.

Em conclusão, este estudo destaca a importância da abordagem

ecossistémica na carcinicultura, sublinhando a necessidade de

compreender e gerir as comunidades planctónicas para alcançar uma

aquicultura bem-sucedida e sustentável.

Palavras-chave: fatores bióticos, toplâncton, zooplâncton, revisão

sistemática, carcinicultura.

Introduction

In aquaculture, water quality is the rst and most important

consideration for a successful outcome; being one of the most

relevant problems in aquaculture systems, since it deteriorates due

to production practices. For this reason, water must be managed with

extreme care during the production cycles, in order to guarantee good

growth and avoid stress and death of the cultured species (Lucas et

al., 2019).

Given that shrimp farming takes place in aquatic environments

and these are home to a high diversity, any alteration that occurs will

be translated into changes in the structure and functionality of the

communities that inhabit them. The response capacity developed by

certain organisms such as plankton, to which the term “bioindicators”

is attributed, can be used to provide information on physical and

chemical changes, which in the long term reveal modications in the

composition of the community (González et al., 2014).

In this sense, phytoplankton comprise the largest fraction of

primary producers in aquatic ecosystems, having a greater inuence

on water quality than other plants and is the staple food for consumers

such as zooplankton. The changes triggered by plankton condition

the water quality of shrimp farms, which is why they must be

adequately monitored in order to increase survival, food conversion

and production (Boyd, 2015).

The use of planktonic organisms as bioindicators currently

represents an important tool in aquaculture cultures, and this is

because plankton react quickly to ecological changes and are seen

as excellent indicators of water quality and trophic conditions, due to

their short life cycles and rapid reproduction rate (Wang et al., 2022).

The occurrence of planktonic organisms is related to the range of

resistance in relation to abiotic ecological components (temperature,

oxygen xation, and pH), as well as biotic connections between

organisms. Changes occurring within plankton communities provide

the platform for determining the trophic state, and hence the quality

of water bodies (Saraswathy et al., 2013; Parmar et al., 2016).

Therefore, the following review is proposed in order to address the

planktonic communities that live inside the pools as an aspect of vital

importance to consider, since they allow obtaining a comprehensive

view of the environment, constituting a key to good management.

Methods

The systematic review (meta-data analysis) was carried out

taking into account studies carried out on the planktonic community

in P. vanammei culture systems. A search was performed using the

keywords “Phytoplankton”, “Zooplankton”, “P. vannamei”, “semi-

intensive culture”, “bioindicator” in both Spanish and English. To

optimize the search, the Boolean operator AND was used to rene

the search results within the dierent databases, thus selecting the

scientic articles with exact matches. The search engines used were

Google Scholar as it is currently the best free tool for locating open

access academic information and Science Direct, as the digital

platform and database that makes it possible to consult Elsevier

publications (Gil, 2015; Codina, 2018).

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Hernández and Guerrero Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40 (Supplement): e2340Spl073-6 |

and therefore all the factors that inuence it must be controlled. In this

sense, feeding is an important factor, not only because of the benet

that the natural biota of the pond represents for shrimp growth, but

also because it is the main source of deterioration of water quality,

which has repercussions on the poor productive response of the

organisms in culture and on the economic protability of the culture.

It is well known that in semi-intensive culture of P. vannamei the

main source of feed is concentrate, however, phytoplankton is a natural

food source that plays a key role in maintaining ecological functions,

including ways to balance the aquatic ecosystem by promoting feed

conversion ratio and increased shrimp production (Qiao et al., 2020).

Anderson et al. (1987) showed that 53-77 % of P. vannamei growth

in semi-intensive systems came from natural feed, while formulated

feeds accounted for the remaining 30-40 %.

Phytoplankton or microalgae are phototrophic microorganisms

with simple nutritional requirements that constitute the primary

producers and the basis of nutrient cycling in aquatic ecosystems

(Verma et al., 2012; Singh and Ahluwalia, 2013). Phytoplankton

communities experience a continuous succession of dominant species

due to dynamic changes in growth factors such as light, temperature

and nutrient concentrations (Casé et al., 2008). It has been found

that diatoms and green algae often dominate the initial phase of

aquaculture, and as the culture progresses over time, cyanobacteria

and dinoagellates begin to proliferate and gradually become

dominant groups (Chen et al., 2018).

Diatoms and green algae, are desired for their high nutritional

value and contribution to water quality (Brito et al., 2016), while

cyanobacteria and dinoagellates, are undesirable for their low

nutritional value and ability to produce toxins (Pérez-Morales et

al., 2017). As a result, the establishment of a healthy aquaculture

environment requires a balance of algae that is benecial to aquaculture

organisms. The literature suggests some recommendations for

phytoplankton concentration in semi-intensive culture systems for

these to be benecial (table 1).

Discussion

Generalities on systemic approach and its application to

production processes

The study of systems, dened as a set of components interacting

to achieve a common purpose, requires a clear understanding of their

boundaries and the interrelationships between their components.

General Systems Theory (GST), developed by Ludwig von Bertalany,

provides a framework for this analysis, although its reductionist

approach has proven insucient to explain complexity in natural

systems (Davidson, 1983). Subsequently, Odum’s Systems Ecology

incorporated aspects of GST and cybernetics to model ecosystems in

greater detail (Ramage and Shipp, 2009). The intention of presenting

the applicability of the systems approach to productive processes is

based on the importance of knowing the internal and external ows of

matter and energy, recognizing the connections between the dierent

subsystems that contribute to the search for integral solutions.

Components of the P. vannamei planktonic production system

Aquaculture as a productive process requires various elements

of the environment, which allow the development of the activity, as

well as specic inputs; all in order to obtain the desired results from

the productive point of view. In this sense, semi-intensive shrimp

farming falls within the organismic theory of von Bertalany’s

Biological Systems (Betancourt et al., 2016), where physicochemical

and biological factors converge, which together will give the shrimp

postlarvae the optimal conditions to obtain the nal product that will

be marketed.

Biological subsystem

A diagram was designed to identify the various energy inputs,

the modications that all the elements undergo once they enter the

system, as well as the outputs; in order to better understand the

dynamics of these culture systems (gure 1). Water quality is the

main element that must be monitored when working in aquaculture

production, since it is the medium in which the organism will develop

Figure 1. Interaction between the components of the planktonic production system in semi-intensive culture of Penaeus vannamei.

Source: Author’s elaboration.

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Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40 (Supplement): e2340Spl07. October-December. ISSN 2477-9407.4-6 |

Table 1. Desirable phytoplankton densities (cel.mL

-1

) in semi-

intensive shrimp culture ponds, adapted from Cliord

(1994).

Phytoplankton component

cel.mL

-1

Minimum Maximum

Bacilariophytes and Chrysophytes (Diatoms) 20,000

Chlorophytes (Green algae) 50,000

Cyanophytes (Cyanobacteria) 10,000 40,000

Dinophytes (Dinoagellates) -------------- 500

Total number of cells in phytoplankton 80,000 300,000

Source: Martínez-Córdoba (2008).

Within the phytoplankton community, diatoms are the rst

bioavailable food for shrimp from the larval to the adult stage,

providing an important contribution of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,

vitamins, minerals, fatty acids and amino acids (Nesara and Bedi,

2019). On the contrary, cyanobacteria are a decient food for the

trophic chain, aect the organoleptic properties of shrimp commonly

known as “o avor”, can generate toxic compounds and therefore

worsen water quality (Alonso-Rodríguez, 2004).

An interesting characteristic of benthic diatoms is their ability to

colonize the entire surface of the reservoirs in which they live, forming

biolms or small clusters that adhere to the substrates, forming

colonies of cells suspended in the water, which makes them aordable

food of various sizes to feed shrimp larvae. The main nutritional

value of diatoms is due to their high lipid content, with an average of

32-38 % crude protein, making them an important component of the

natural food of penaeid shrimp; this nutritional value is relevant for

shrimp growth and development, highlighting their importance in the

food chain of aquaculture ponds (Mohanty et al., 2018). Diatoms also

play a key role in the biogeochemical silicon cycle and in the global

capture of carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. These unicellular

beings use silicic acid dissolved in water and transform it into opaline

silica to build their frustules (Pérez and Mancilla, 2012).

Phytoplankton absorb nutrients from the water for their use and

growth and remove ammonia nitrogen from the water, which is

particularly important for decreasing concentrations of this potentially

toxic metabolite. These communities also favor the decrease of CO

levels, which in high concentrations can be toxic and even inuence

the pH values of the medium (Boyd, 2017c).

The N:P ratio has a close relationship with phytoplankton

abundance, even inuencing the composition of the phytoplankton

class present in P. vannamei culture ponds. According to Masithah et al.

(2019) when nitrate concentration increases, it favors the dominance

of the Bacillariophyceae class and decreases the composition of the

Cyanophyceae; and when that of ammonia in the water is high, it

increases the composition of the Cyanophyceae and decreases that of

the Bacillariophyceae. On the other hand, phosphate concentration

favors the proliferation of phytoplankton of the Bacillariophyceae

and Cyanophyceae classes.

In aquaculture, phosphorus is mainly found as phosphate ion and

most of it is found in plankton biomass or adsorbed on suspended soil

particles. In sediments, phosphorus forms poorly soluble compounds

with iron and aluminum under acidic conditions and with calcium

under basic conditions (Lucas et al., 2019). Soil phosphorus is not

very soluble and is poorly available to pond organisms, which is

why a constant supply of phosphorus to the medium is important to

Zooplankton component Abundance recommended (org.mL

-1

)

Copepods 2 to 50

Rotifers 2 to 50

Protozoa 10 to 150

Polychaete larvae 2 to 20

Source: Martínez-Córdoba (2008).

When comparing the variations present in a shrimp farm with a

sh farm, the evidence suggests that the introduction of planktivorous

species generates changes in the zooplankton structure, going from a

predominance of copepods, rotifers and small cladocerans, such as

Bosmina, to a predominance of large cladocerans, in turn altering the

biomass and productivity of phytoplankton (Carpenter and Kitchell,

1993). This study illustrates the reality of shrimp farming, since sh

are present in the drainage channels that supply the pools, as well as

in the lagoons themselves, which aects the dynamics of the higher

trophic levels that in turn condition the microalgae and even the

concentration of nutrients in the system.

The productivity of aquatic ecosystems can vary depending on

the energy input, in a reservoir, producers can reach a density of 108 -

1010 org.m

and have a biomass of 5 g.m

, while secondary producers

such as zooplankton have a slightly lower density of 105 - 107 org.m

with a much lower biomass than phytoplankton, reaching 0.5 g.m

These data highlight the importance of the subsystem constituted

by the microbiota found in the lagoon sediments (Odum and Barret,

2006).

Low trophic link farming, as in the case of shrimp farming, poses

challenges for ponds due to lower primary productivity and longer

food chains. This situation has generated sustainability and pond

management problems, especially with excessive feed intake. One

strategy to address this situation has been water exchange, which

reduces nutrient loading by ushing nutrients out of the system,

and increasing the density of saprophytic organisms, which helps to

recycle excess energy deposited in the sediments without drastically

altering the physicochemical subsystem (Odum and Barret, 2006).

maintain

phytoplankton

blooms.

estimated

that

shrimp

release

approximately

60-80 %

the

phosphorus

they

consume,

and

once released into the water, if it is not absorbed by the soil it is

lost with water turnover or during harvesting (Boyd, 2001).

Zooplankton,

composed

minute

aquatic

organisms,

plays

crucial

role

semi-intensive

shrimp

farming.

This

heterotrophic

planktonic

fraction

constitutes

the

link

the

food

chain

the water body and serves as live food for the shrimp. This diverse

community

includes

larval,

juvenile

and

adult

stages

various

aquatic zoological groups, playing a pivotal role in linking primary

producers to higher trophic levels (Singh

et al., 2013).

In shrimp culture, the rst three zooplankton fractions are the most

important components of the diet. For postlarvae, microzooplankton

is crucial, while for larvae, mesozooplankton is more useful. For adult

shrimp, the main components of the zooplankton they consume are

copepods, polychaete larvae, insect larvae (mosquitoes) and rotifers.

To ensure signicant food value in cultured shrimp, recommendations

are

established

the

amount

zooplankton

desirable

semi-

intensive culture (table 2).

Table 2. Average recommended zooplankton organisms in shrimp

culture ponds.

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Hernández and Guerrero Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40 (Supplement): e2340Spl075-6 |

of various aquaculture components have been claimed to be biological

indicators of shrimp health status (Zhang et al., 2014).

Conclusion

The ecosystem approach is fundamental to understanding the

complex interactions in semi-intensive P. vannamei culture systems.

This study highlights the importance of analyzing the interrelationship

between biotic and abiotic factors, using phytoplankton and

zooplankton as key bioindicators of water quality and trophic

conditions. The crucial role of these planktonic communities in shrimp

diet and nutrient regulation is discussed in detail. In addition, strategies

to maintain a benecial balance in phytoplankton communities and to

address challenges related to primary productivity are discussed. The

ecosystem approach provides insight into the complex interactions in

culture systems and ensures their long-term viability, underscoring

the need to properly monitor and manage planktonic communities for

successful and sustainable aquaculture.

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larvicultura: importancia de un buen manejo. Instituto de Ciencias

del Mar y Limnología de la UNAM y el Comité de Sanidad Acuícola

de Sinaloa CESASIM. http://cesasin.com.mx/Fitoplancton%20y%20

camaronicultura.pdf

Anderson, R.K., Parker, P.L., & Lawrence, A. (1987). A 13C/12C tracer study of the

utilization of presented feed by a commercially important shrimp Penaeus

vannamei in a pond grow out system1. Journal of the World Aquaculture

Society, 18 (3), 148–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1987.

tb00433.x

Betancourt, Ó., Mertens, F., & Parra, M. (2016). Enfoques ecosistémicos en salud

y ambiente. En Betancourt, Ó., Mertens, F., & Parra, M. (Eds.). Enfoques

ecosistémicos en salud y ambiente: aportes teórico-metodológicos de una

comunidad de práctica (pp. 103-158). Abya-Yala.

Brönmark, C., & Hansson, L. A. (2017). The biology of lakes and ponds. Oxford

university press. https://jcsites.juniata.edu/faculty/merovich/limnology_

les/Biology-of-Lakes-Ponds.pdf

Carpenter, S. R., & Kitchell, J. F. (eds.) (1993). The trophic cascade in lakes.

Cambridge University Press.

Singh, U. B., Ahluwalia, A. S., Sharma, C., Jindal, R., & Thakur, R. K. (2013).

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(early-warning signals). Ecology, Environment and Conservation, 19(3),

793-800. https://shre.ink/2tvC

Boyd, C. E. (2001). Consideraciones sobre la calidad del agua y del suelo en

cultivos de camarón. En M. C. Haws y C. E. Boyd. (eds.). Métodos

para mejorar la camaronicultura en Centroamérica. (pp. 1-30). Editorial-

Imprenta UCA.

Boyd, C. E. (2015). Water Quality. Springer. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-17446-4

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los ecosistemas de estanques acuícolas. https://www.globalseafood.org/

advocate/el-toplancton-es-un-componente-critico-de-los-ecosistemas-

de-estanques-acuicolas/

Boyd, C. (26 de mayo de 2017b). Cómo la descomposición de la materia orgánica

impacta los estanques acuícolas. Global Aquaculture Alliance. https://

www.globalseafood.org/advocate/como-la-descomposicion-de-la-

materia-organica-impacta-los-estanques-acuicolas/

Boyd, C. (28 de agosto de 2017c). El toplancton y su impacto en la calidad

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dominant/docview/2449279160/se-2

Planktonic lter feeders include protozoans, rotifers and

crustaceans. Some rotifers feed primarily on detritus, while others eat

small algae and bacteria. However, the main planktonic herbivores

are cladocerans (e.g., Daphnia) and copepods, which are generally

lter feeders, although some are rapacious. Individual ltration rates

among planktonic lter feeders vary more than 1000-fold, from 0.02

mL of water on day 1 for small rotifers to more than 30 ml of water on

day 1 for daphnia. Mussels, on the other hand, are the most important

benthic lter feeders that move water through the body cavity,

removing food particles using their gills as a ltering apparatus.

These can become very abundant in culture ponds and generate water

transparency problems due to their ltration volumes (Brönmark and

Hansson, 2017).

Table 3. Filtration rates and preferred food particle size of some

important herbivores (Based on Reynolds 1984).

Filtration rate (mL

-1

) Particle size preference (µm)

Rotifers 0.02 – 0.11 0.5 - 18

Calanoid copepods 2.4 – 21.6 5 - 15

Daphnia (small) 1.0 – 7.6 1 - 24

Daphnia (large) 31 1 - 47

Source: Brönmark & Hansson, (2017).

In aquaculture the presence of bacteria is indispensable due to

natural decomposition processes, especially when abiotic factors

allow the right conditions to be generated. The main factors to be

considered are humidity, temperature (approximately 30 to 35 °C),

ionic potential (pH 7.5 - 8.5 usually optimal), oxygen concentrations

and sucient, easily decomposable substrate.

Bacteria act in a directly proportional relationship to the content

of organic matter available in the medium; therefore, the greater

the supply of nutrients or concentrated feed, the greater will be the

microbial activity. In aquaculture, organic matter accumulates mainly

in the sediment, which is usually degraded almost entirely by bacteria

during the culture period; and there is also another fraction that is

usually retained (Boyd, 2017b).

In addition to the bacteria that fulll their role of degrading,

in recent years shrimp farming has begun to apply in a controlled

manner what is known as probiotics, which are nothing more than

microbial symbiont cells of the gastrointestinal tract of shrimp that

have the role of generating benecial eects in shrimp, such as

improving their immune response to pathogens and also contributing

to increased growth (Trujillo et al., 2017). However, contrary to what

is believed Boyd (2017a) states that the addition of these products

does not guarantee an improvement in water quality in productive

systems.

Currently, a type of technology called Biooc Tecnology

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bacterial communities that can remove excess nutrients, this being its

fundamental principle in which densely grown heterotrophic bacterial

cells conglomerate together and become occulated aggregates

(bioocs), controlling nitrogen concentrations, decreasing the risk of

pathogens, and the bioocs developed serve as natural protein food

for shrimp (Rajeev et al., 2023). Furthermore, bacterial assemblages

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